Implications of cellular models of dopamine neurons for schizophrenia

Modeling methamphetamine use disorder and relapse in animals: short- and long-term epigenetic, transcriptional., and biochemical consequences in the rat brain

Methamphetamine use disorder (MUD) is a neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by binge drug taking episodes, intervals of abstinence, and relapses to drug use even during treatment. MUD has been modeled in rodents and investigators are attempting to identify its molecular bases. Preclinical experiments have shown that different schedules of methamphetamine self-administration can cause diverse transcriptional changes in the dorsal striatum of Sprague-Dawley rats. In the present review, we present data on differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified in the rat striatum following methamphetamine intake. These include genes involved in transcription regulation, potassium channel function, and neuroinflammation. We then use the striatal data to discuss the potential significance of the molecular changes induced by methamphetamine by reviewing concordant or discordant data from the literature. This review identified potential molecular targets for pharmacological interventions. Nevertheless, there is a need for more research on methamphetamine-induced transcriptional consequences in various brain regions. These data should provide a more detailed neuroanatomical map of methamphetamine-induced changes and should better inform therapeutic interventions against MUD.

Multi-timescale analysis of midbrain dopamine neuronal firing activities

Midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons exhibit spiking and bursting patterns under physiological conditions. Based on the data on electrophysiological recordings, Yu et al. developed a 13-dimensional mathematical model to capture the detailed characteristics of the DA neuronal firing activities. We use the fitting method to simplify the original model into a 4-dimensional model. Then, the spiking-to-bursting transition is detected from a simple and robust mathematical condition. Physiologically, this condition is a balance of the restorative and the regenerative ion channels at resting potential. Geometrically, this condition imposes a transcritical bifurcation. Moreover, we combine singularity theory and singular perturbation methods to capture the geometry of three-timescale firing attractors in a universal unfolding of a cusp singularity. In particular, the planar description of the corresponding firing patterns can generate the corresponding firing attractors. This analysis provides a new idea for understanding the firing activities of the DA neuron and the specific mechanisms for the switching and dynamic regulation among different patterns.

Inactivation mode of sodium channels defines the different maximal firing rates of conventional versus atypical midbrain dopamine neurons

Two subpopulations of midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons are known to have different dynamic firing ranges in vitro that correspond to distinct projection targets: the originally identified conventional DA neurons project to the dorsal striatum and the lateral shell of the nucleus accumbens, whereas an atypical DA population with higher maximum firing frequencies projects to prefrontal regions and other limbic regions including the medial shell of nucleus accumbens. Using a computational model, we show that previously identified differences in biophysical properties do not fully account for the larger dynamic range of the atypical population and predict that the major difference is that originally identified conventional cells have larger occupancy of voltage-gated sodium channels in a long-term inactivated state that recovers slowly; stronger sodium and potassium conductances during action potential firing are also predicted for the conventional compared to the atypical DA population. These differences in sodium channel gating imply that longer intervals between spikes are required in the conventional population for full recovery from long-term inactivation induced by the preceding spike, hence the lower maximum frequency. These same differences can also change the bifurcation structure to account for distinct modes of entry into depolarization block: abrupt versus gradual. The model predicted that in cells that have entered depolarization block, it is much more likely that an additional depolarization can evoke an action potential in conventional DA population. New experiments comparing lateral to medial shell projecting neurons confirmed this model prediction, with implications for differential synaptic integration in the two populations.

We developed a theoretical and mathematical framework that could explain the major electrophysiological differences between the conventional midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons with a low maximum firing rate, and the more recently identified atypical DA neurons. Testable predictions from this framework were then verified with in vitro patch-clamp recordings from DA neurons with identified phenotypes and projection targets. Since different subpopulations of DA neurons participate in different circuits, and these circuits are likely differentially dysregulated in diseases such as addiction, Parkinson disease, and schizophrenia, it is important to identify the differences of their intrinsic electrophysiological properties as a prelude to developing more precisely targeted therapies.

Computational and theoretical insights into the homeostatic response to the decreased cell size of midbrain dopamine neurons

Midbrain dopamine neurons communicate signals of reward anticipation and attribution of salience. This capacity is distorted in heroin or cocaine abuse or in conditions such as human mania. A shared characteristic among rodent models of these behavioral disorders is that dopamine neurons in these animals acquired a small size and manifest an augmented spontaneous and burst activity. The biophysical mechanism underlying this increased excitation is currently unknown, but is believed to primarily follow from a substantial drop in K+ conductance secondary to morphology reduction. This work uses a dopamine neuron mathematical model to show, surprisingly, that under size diminution a reduction in K+ conductance is an adaptation that attempts to decrease cell excitability. The homeostatic response that preserves the intrinsic activity is the conservation of the ion channel density for each conductance; a result that is analytically demonstrated and challenges the experimentalist tendency to reduce intrinsic excitation to K+ conductance expression level. Another unexpected mechanism that buffers the raise in intrinsic activity is the presence of the ether-a-go-go-related gen K+ channel since its activation is illustrated to increase with size reduction. Computational experiments finally demonstrate that size attenuation results in the paradoxical enhancement of afferent-driven bursting as a reduced temporal summation indexed correlates with improved depolarization. This work illustrates, on the whole, that experimentation in the absence of mathematical models may lead to the erroneous interpretation of the counterintuitive aspects of empirical data.

Neuronal defects in a human cellular model of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome

22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is a highly penetrant and common genetic cause of neuropsychiatric disease. Here we generated induced pluripotent stem cells from 15 individuals with 22q11DS and 15 control individuals and differentiated them into three-dimensional (3D) cerebral cortical organoids. Transcriptional profiling across 100 days showed high reliability of differentiation and revealed changes in neuronal excitability-related genes. Using electrophysiology and live imaging, we identified defects in spontaneous neuronal activity and calcium signaling in both organoid- and 2D-derived cortical neurons. The calcium deficit was related to resting membrane potential changes that led to abnormal inactivation of voltage-gated calcium channels. Heterozygous loss of DGCR8 recapitulated the excitability and calcium phenotypes and its overexpression rescued these defects. Moreover, the 22q11DS calcium abnormality could also be restored by application of antipsychotics. Taken together, our study illustrates how stem cell derived models can be used to uncover and rescue cellular phenotypes associated with genetic forms of neuropsychiatric disease.

Female mice are resilient to age-related decline of substantia nigra dopamine neuron firing parameters

Degeneration of substantia nigra pars compacta dopamine neurons is a central feature in the pathology of Parkinson's disease, which is characterized by progressive loss of motor and cognitive functions. The largest risk factors for Parkinson's disease are age and sex; most cases occur after age 60 and males have nearly twice the incidence as females. Preclinical work has scarcely considered the influence of these 2 factors to disease risk and presentation. Here, we observed a progressive decline in dopamine neuron firing activity in male C57BL/6 mice by 18 months of age, while dopamine neurons from females remained largely unaffected. This was accompanied by increased mRNA expression of PINK1 in both males and females, and PARK2 primarily in males, both of which have been linked to Parkinson's. Since the declining cell properties were accompanied by only slight decreases in locomotion in both sexes, it is likely that these age-related impairments in males represent a vulnerability to further insults that could predispose the neurons to neurodegenerative processes such as in Parkinson's.

Calcium dynamics control K-ATP channel-mediated bursting in substantia nigra dopamine neurons: a combined experimental and modeling study

Burst firing in medial substantia nigra (mSN) dopamine (DA) neurons has been selectively linked to novelty-induced exploration behavior in mice. Burst firing in mSN DA neurons, in contrast to lateral SN DA neurons, requires functional ATP-sensitive potassium (K-ATP) channels both in vitro and in vivo. However, the precise role of K-ATP channels in promoting burst firing is unknown. We show experimentally that L-type calcium channel activity in mSN DA neurons enhances open probability of K-ATP channels. We then generate a mathematical model to study the role of Ca²⁺ dynamics driving K-ATP channel function in mSN DA neurons during bursting. In our model, Ca²⁺ influx leads to local accumulation of ADP due to Ca-ATPase activity, which in turn activates K-ATP channels. If K-ATP channel activation reaches levels sufficient to terminate spiking, rhythmic bursting occurs. The model explains the experimental observation that, in vitro, coapplication of NMDA and a selective K-ATP channel opener, NN414, is required to elicit bursting as follows. Simulated NMDA receptor activation increases the firing rate and the rate of Ca²⁺ influx, which increases the activation of K-ATP. The model suggests that additional sources of hyperpolarization, such as GABAergic synaptic input, are recruited in vivo for burst termination or rebound burst discharge. The model predicts that NN414 increases the sensitivity of the K-ATP channel to ADP, promoting burst firing in vitro, and that that high levels of Ca²⁺ buffering, as might be expected in the calbindin-positive SN DA neuron subpopulation, promote rhythmic bursting pattern, consistent with experimental observations in vivo. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Recently identified distinct subpopulations of midbrain dopamine neurons exhibit differences in their two primary activity patterns in vivo: tonic (single spike) firing and phasic bursting. This study elucidates the biophysical basis of bursts specific to dopamine neurons in the medial substantia nigra, enabled by ATP-sensitive K⁺ channels and necessary for novelty-induced exploration. A better understanding of how dopaminergic signaling differs between subpopulations may lead to therapeutic strategies selectively targeted to specific subpopulations.

Arthropod toxins acting on neuronal potassium channels

Arthropod venoms are a rich mixture of biologically active compounds exerting different physiological actions across diverse phyla and affecting multiple organ systems including the central nervous system. Venom compounds can inhibit or activate ion channels, receptors and transporters with high specificity and affinity providing essential insights into ion channel function. In this review, we focus on arthropod toxins (scorpions, spiders, bees and centipedes) acting on neuronal potassium channels. A brief description of the K⁺ channels classification and structure is included and a compendium of neuronal K⁺ channels and the arthropod toxins that modify them have been listed. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Venom-derived Peptides as Pharmacological Tools.'

A Mathematical Model of a Midbrain Dopamine Neuron Identifies Two Slow Variables Likely Responsible for Bursts Evoked by SK Channel Antagonists and Terminated by Depolarization Block

Midbrain dopamine neurons exhibit a novel type of bursting that we call "inverted square wave bursting" when exposed to Ca(2+)-activated small conductance (SK) K(+) channel blockers in vitro. This type of bursting has three phases: hyperpolarized silence, spiking, and depolarization block. We find that two slow variables are required for this type of bursting, and we show that the three-dimensional bifurcation diagram for inverted square wave bursting is a folded surface with upper (depolarized) and lower (hyperpolarized) branches. The activation of the L-type Ca(2+) channel largely supports the separation between these branches. Spiking is initiated at a saddle node on an invariant circle bifurcation at the folded edge of the lower branch and the trajectory spirals around the unstable fixed points on the upper branch. Spiking is terminated at a supercritical Hopf bifurcation, but the trajectory remains on the upper branch until it hits a saddle node on the upper folded edge and drops to the lower branch. The two slow variables contribute as follows. A second, slow component of sodium channel inactivation is largely responsible for the initiation and termination of spiking. The slow activation of the ether-a-go-go-related (ERG) K(+) current is largely responsible for termination of the depolarized plateau. The mechanisms and slow processes identified herein may contribute to bursting as well as entry into and recovery from the depolarization block to different degrees in different subpopulations of dopamine neurons in vivo.

Mathematical analysis of depolarization block mediated by slow inactivation of fast sodium channels in midbrain dopamine neurons

Dopamine neurons in freely moving rats often fire behaviorally relevant high-frequency bursts, but depolarization block limits the maximum steady firing rate of dopamine neurons in vitro to ∼10 Hz. Using a reduced model that faithfully reproduces the sodium current measured in these neurons, we show that adding an additional slow component of sodium channel inactivation, recently observed in these neurons, qualitatively changes in two different ways how the model enters into depolarization block. First, the slow time course of inactivation allows multiple spikes to be elicited during a strong depolarization prior to entry into depolarization block. Second, depolarization block occurs near or below the spike threshold, which ranges from -45 to -30 mV in vitro, because the additional slow component of inactivation negates the sodium window current. In the absence of the additional slow component of inactivation, this window current produces an N-shaped steady-state current-voltage (I-V) curve that prevents depolarization block in the experimentally observed voltage range near -40 mV. The time constant of recovery from slow inactivation during the interspike interval limits the maximum steady firing rate observed prior to entry into depolarization block. These qualitative features of the entry into depolarization block can be reversed experimentally by replacing the native sodium conductance with a virtual conductance lacking the slow component of inactivation. We show that the activation of NMDA and AMPA receptors can affect bursting and depolarization block in different ways, depending upon their relative contributions to depolarization versus to the total linear/nonlinear conductance.

Pattern recognition of neurotransmitters using multimode sensing

BACKGROUND

Pattern recognition is essential in chemical analysis of biological fluids. Reliable and sensitive methods for neurotransmitters analysis are needed.

NEW METHOD

Therefore, we developed for pattern recognition of neurotransmitters: dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine a method based on multimode sensing. Multimode sensing was performed using microsensors based on diamond paste modified with 5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl-21H,23H-porphyrine, hemin and protoporphyrin IX in stochastic and differential pulse voltammetry modes.

RESULTS

Optimized working conditions: phosphate buffer solution of pH 3.01 and KCl 0.1mol/L (as electrolyte support), were determined using cyclic voltammetry and used in all measurements. The lowest limits of quantification were: 10(-10)mol/L for dopamine and epinephrine, and 10(-11)mol/L for norepinephrine. The multimode microsensors were selective over ascorbic and uric acids and the method facilitated reliable assay of neurotransmitters in urine samples, and therefore, the pattern recognition showed high reliability (RSD<1% for more than 6 months) for the simultaneous determination of dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine from urine and whole blood samples.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD(S)

The proposed method can perform pattern recognition of the three neurotransmitters on biological fluids at a lower determination level than chromatographic methods. The sampling of the biological fluids referees only to the buffering (1:1, v/v) with a phosphate buffer pH 3.01, while for chromatographic methods the sampling is laborious.

CONCLUSIONS

Accordingly with the statistic evaluation of the results at 99.00% confidence level, both modes can be used for pattern recognition and quantification of neurotransmitters with high reliability. The best multimode microsensor was the one based on diamond paste modified with protoporphyrin IX.