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Li X, Zou Y, Geng B, Liu P, Cao L, Zhang Z, Hu S, Wang C, Zhao Y, Wu Q, Tan J. Transcriptome analysis reveals that defects in cell cycle regulation contribute to preimplantation embryo arrest. Genomics 2024; 116:110946. [PMID: 39326642 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2024.110946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2024] [Revised: 09/09/2024] [Accepted: 09/23/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024]
Abstract
Patients with preimplantation embryo arrest (PREMBA) often experience assisted reproductive failure primarily due to the lack of transferable embryos, and the molecular mechanisms underlying PREMBA remain unclear. In our study, the embryos from five women with recurrent preimplantation embryo arrest and three women with tubal factor infertility were used for single-embryo transcriptome sequencing. Meanwhile, the transcriptomes of normal human preimplantation embryos obtained from GSE36552 were utilized to perform a comparative analysis with the transcriptomes of PREMBA embryos. Our results showed dysregulation of the cell cycle phase transition might be a potential pathogenic factor contributing to PREMBA. Through integrated analysis of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), we identified a number of hub genes using the protein-protein interaction network. The top 5 hub genes were as follows: CCNB2, BUB1B, CDC25A, CCNB3, and PLK3. The expression of hub genes was validated in PREMBA embryos and donated embryos using RT-qPCR. The knockdown of Ccnb2 in mouse zygotes led to an increase in embryo fragmentation, a rise in apoptosis, and a reduction in blastocyst formation. Furthermore, silencing the expression of CDC25A in HEK293T cells resulted in a decrease in cell proliferation and an increase in apoptosis, providing further support for our findings. Our findings could predict the development outcomes of preimplantation embryos and be used as potential therapeutic targets to prevent recurrent failures of IVF/ICSI attempts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China; JXHC Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Yang Zou
- Central Laboratory, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Baobao Geng
- Suzhou Institute of Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, SuZhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Peipei Liu
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China; JXHC Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Liyun Cao
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China; JXHC Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Zhiqin Zhang
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Shaofeng Hu
- JXHC Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Changhua Wang
- JXHC Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Yan Zhao
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China.
| | - Qiongfang Wu
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China.
| | - Jun Tan
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China; JXHC Key Laboratory of Fertility Preservation, Jiangxi Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China.
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Heo G, Lee SH, Kim JD, Lee GH, Sim JM, Zhou D, Guo J, Cui XS. GRP78 acts as a cAMP/PKA signaling modulator through the MC4R pathway in porcine embryonic development. FASEB J 2023; 37:e23274. [PMID: 37917004 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202301356r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
Glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) binds to and stabilizes melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R), which activates protein kinase A (PKA) by regulating G proteins. GRP78 is primarily used as a marker for endoplasmic reticulum stress; however, its other functions have not been well studied. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate the function of GRP78 during porcine embryonic development. The developmental quality of porcine embryos, expression of cell cycle proteins, and function of mitochondria were evaluated by inhibiting the function of GRP78. Porcine oocytes were activated to undergo parthenogenesis, and blastocysts were obtained after 7 days of in vitro culture. GRP78 function was inhibited by adding 20 μM HA15 to the in vitro culture medium. The inhibition in GRP78 function led to a decrease in G proteins release, which subsequently downregulated the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)/PKA pathway. Ultimately, inhibition of GRP78 function induced the inhibition of CDK1 and cyclin B expression and disruption of the cell cycle. In addition, inhibition of GRP78 function regulated DRP1 and SIRT1 expression, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction. This study provides new insights into the role of GRP78 in porcine embryonic development, particularly its involvement in the regulation of the MC4R pathway and downstream cAMP/PKA signaling. The results suggest that the inhibition of GRP78 function in porcine embryos by HA15 treatment may have negative effects on embryo quality and development. This study also demonstrated that GRP78 plays a crucial role in the functioning of MC4R, which releases the G protein during porcine embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geun Heo
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Song-Hee Lee
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Dam Kim
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyu-Hyun Lee
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Min Sim
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Dongjie Zhou
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jing Guo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiang-Shun Cui
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
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3
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Derks LLM, van Boxtel R. Stem cell mutations, associated cancer risk, and consequences for regenerative medicine. Cell Stem Cell 2023; 30:1421-1433. [PMID: 37832550 PMCID: PMC10624213 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Mutation accumulation in stem cells has been associated with cancer risk. However, the presence of numerous mutant clones in healthy tissues has raised the question of what limits cancer initiation. Here, we review recent developments in characterizing mutation accumulation in healthy tissues and compare mutation rates in stem cells during development and adult life with corresponding cancer risk. A certain level of mutagenesis within the stem cell pool might be beneficial to limit the size of malignant clones through competition. This knowledge impacts our understanding of carcinogenesis with potential consequences for the use of stem cells in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucca L M Derks
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Jaarbeursplein 6, 3521 AL Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ruben van Boxtel
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS Utrecht, the Netherlands; Oncode Institute, Jaarbeursplein 6, 3521 AL Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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4
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Knoblochova L, Duricek T, Vaskovicova M, Zorzompokou C, Rayova D, Ferencova I, Baran V, Schultz RM, Hoffmann ER, Drutovic D. CHK1-CDC25A-CDK1 regulate cell cycle progression and protect genome integrity in early mouse embryos. EMBO Rep 2023; 24:e56530. [PMID: 37694680 PMCID: PMC10561370 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202256530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
After fertilization, remodeling of the oocyte and sperm genomes is essential to convert these highly differentiated and transcriptionally quiescent cells into early cleavage-stage blastomeres that are transcriptionally active and totipotent. This developmental transition is accompanied by cell cycle adaptation, such as lengthening or shortening of the gap phases G1 and G2. However, regulation of these cell cycle changes is poorly understood, especially in mammals. Checkpoint kinase 1 (CHK1) is a protein kinase that regulates cell cycle progression in somatic cells. Here, we show that CHK1 regulates cell cycle progression in early mouse embryos by restraining CDK1 kinase activity due to CDC25A phosphatase degradation. CHK1 kinase also ensures the long G2 phase needed for genome activation and reprogramming gene expression in two-cell stage mouse embryos. Finally, Chk1 depletion leads to DNA damage and chromosome segregation errors that result in aneuploidy and infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Knoblochova
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of SciencesLibechovCzech Republic
- Faculty of ScienceCharles UniversityPragueCzech Republic
| | - Tomas Duricek
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of SciencesLibechovCzech Republic
| | - Michaela Vaskovicova
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of SciencesLibechovCzech Republic
| | - Chrysoula Zorzompokou
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of SciencesLibechovCzech Republic
| | - Diana Rayova
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of SciencesLibechovCzech Republic
| | - Ivana Ferencova
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of SciencesLibechovCzech Republic
| | - Vladimir Baran
- Institute of Animal Physiology, Centre of Biosciences, Slovak Academy of SciencesKosiceSlovakia
| | - Richard M Schultz
- Department of BiologyUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPAUSA
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCAUSA
| | - Eva R Hoffmann
- DNRF Center for Chromosome Stability, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical SciencesUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagenDenmark
| | - David Drutovic
- Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of SciencesLibechovCzech Republic
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Wu SL, Ju JQ, Ji YM, Zhang HL, Zou YJ, Sun SC. Exposure to acrylamide induces zygotic genome activation defects of mouse embryos. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 175:113753. [PMID: 36997053 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Acrylamide (ACR) is an important chemical raw material for wastewater treatment, paper industry and textile industry, which is widely exposed from occupational, environmental and dietary situation. ACR has neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, potential carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity. Recent study indicates that ACR affected oocyte maturation quality. In the present study, we reported the effects of ACR exposure on zygotic genome activation (ZGA) in embryos and its related mechanism. Our results showed that ACR treatment caused 2-cell arrest in mouse embryos, indicating the failure of ZGA, which was confirmed by decreased global transcription levels and aberrant expression of ZGA-related and maternal factors. We found that histone modifications such as H3K9me3, H3K27me3 and H3K27ac levels were altered, and this might be due to the occurrence of DNA damage, showing with positive γ-H2A.X signal. Moreover, mitochondrial dysfunction and high levels of ROS were detected in ACR treated embryos, indicating that ACR induced oxidative stress, and this might further cause abnormal distribution of endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and lysosomes. In conclusion, our results indicated that ACR exposure disrupted ZGA by inducing mitochondria-based oxidative stress, which further caused DNA damage, aberrant histone modifications and organelles in mouse embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Le Wu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Jia-Qian Ju
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Yi-Ming Ji
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Hao-Lin Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Yuan-Jing Zou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Shao-Chen Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China.
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Jiang WJ, Sun MH, Li XH, Lee SH, Heo G, Zhou D, Cui XS. E2F4 regulates cell cycle to mediate embryonic development in pigs. Theriogenology 2023; 196:227-235. [PMID: 36427391 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2022.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, E2 factor (E2F) acts as a cell cycle regulator. E2F transcription factor 4 (E2F4) is a member of the E2F family of transcription factors and usually represents predominant E2F activity in cells. The E2F4 gene has been extensively studied in animals and is associated with multiple functions, such as cell cycle regulation and apoptosis; however, little is known about its role during embryonic development. In this study, we investigated the function of E2F4 and its mechanism of action in porcine embryo development. For this purpose, we knocked down E2F4 by microinjecting double-stranded RNA of E2F4 at the 1-cell stage. The results showed that E2F4 knockdown in porcine embryos led to a significant decrease in the blastocyst rate and total cell number. Defective E2F4 expression reduced the level of G1/S checkpoints (cyclin E-cyclin-dependent kinase 2) and cell cycle-related gene expression at the 4-cell embryo stage and blastocyst. Moreover, a decrease in E2F4 expression increased phosphorylated H2A.X variant histones and activated ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and p53-p21 pathway. In addition, E2F4 depletion caused a significant decrease in histone acetylation. Taken together, E2F4 plays a critical role as a transcriptional activator in the development of porcine embryos, an observation that contradicts its well-established role as a transcription repressor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Jie Jiang
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Ming-Hong Sun
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Xiao-Han Li
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Song-Hee Lee
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Geun Heo
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Dongjie Zhou
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Xiang-Shun Cui
- Department of Animal Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, Republic of Korea.
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Yang Y, Ni D, Wang L, Shi X, Zhang X, Zhou L, Ji J, Zhao C, Shen R, Ling X, Chen X. Triclosan has a strong influence on the development of mouse preimplantation embryo via activating miR-134/Nanog axis. Toxicology 2022; 481:153349. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2022.153349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Somatic variation in normal tissues: friend or foe of cancer early detection? Ann Oncol 2022; 33:1239-1249. [PMID: 36162751 DOI: 10.1016/j.annonc.2022.09.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Seemingly normal tissues progressively become populated by mutant clones over time. Most of these clones bear mutations in well-known cancer genes but only rarely do they transform into cancer. This poses questions on what triggers cancer initiation and what implications somatic variation has for cancer early detection. DESIGN We analysed recent mutational screens of healthy and cancer-free diseased tissues to compare somatic drivers and the causes of somatic variation across tissues. We then reviewed the mechanisms of clonal expansion and their relationships with age and diseases other than cancer. We finally discussed the relevance of somatic variation for cancer initiation and how it can help or hinder cancer detection and prevention. RESULTS The extent of somatic variation is highly variable across tissues and depends on intrinsic features, such as tissue architecture and turnover, as well as the exposure to endogenous and exogenous insults. Most somatic mutations driving clonal expansion are tissue-specific and inactivate tumor suppressor genes involved in chromatin modification and cell growth signaling. Some of these genes are more frequently mutated in normal tissues than cancer, indicating a context-dependent cancer promoting or protective role. Mutant clones can persist over a long time or disappear rapidly, suggesting that their fitness depends on the dynamic equilibrium with the environment. The disruption of this equilibrium is likely responsible for their transformation into malignant clones and knowing what triggers this process is key for cancer prevention and early detection. Somatic variation should be considered in liquid biopsy, where it may contribute cancer-independent mutations, and in the identification of cancer drivers, since not all mutated genes favoring clonal expansion also drive tumorigenesis. CONCLUSIONS Somatic variation and the factors governing homeostasis of normal tissues should be taken into account when devising strategies for cancer prevention and early detection.
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Manders F, van Boxtel R, Middelkamp S. The Dynamics of Somatic Mutagenesis During Life in Humans. FRONTIERS IN AGING 2022; 2:802407. [PMID: 35822044 PMCID: PMC9261377 DOI: 10.3389/fragi.2021.802407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
From conception to death, human cells accumulate somatic mutations in their genomes. These mutations can contribute to the development of cancer and non-malignant diseases and have also been associated with aging. Rapid technological developments in sequencing approaches in the last few years and their application to normal tissues have greatly advanced our knowledge about the accumulation of these mutations during healthy aging. Whole genome sequencing studies have revealed that there are significant differences in mutation burden and patterns across tissues, but also that the mutation rates within tissues are surprisingly constant during adult life. In contrast, recent lineage-tracing studies based on whole-genome sequencing have shown that the rate of mutation accumulation is strongly increased early in life before birth. These early mutations, which can be shared by many cells in the body, may have a large impact on development and the origin of somatic diseases. For example, cancer driver mutations can arise early in life, decades before the detection of the malignancy. Here, we review the recent insights in mutation accumulation and mutagenic processes in normal tissues. We compare mutagenesis early and later in life and discuss how mutation rates and patterns evolve during aging. Additionally, we outline the potential impact of these mutations on development, aging and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freek Manders
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology and Oncode Institute, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ruben van Boxtel
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology and Oncode Institute, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Sjors Middelkamp
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology and Oncode Institute, Utrecht, Netherlands
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Wang Y, Oda S, Suzuki MG, Mitani H, Aoki F. Cell cycle-dependent radiosensitivity in mouse zygotes. DNA Repair (Amst) 2022; 117:103370. [PMID: 35863142 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2022.103370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian zygotes are hypersensitive to radiation exposure compared with later-stage embryos and somatic cells, which may be due to an unusual DNA damage response (DDR). DNA damage checkpoints are an essential part of the DDR, allowing for faithful replication of cells. Although the DDR and radiosensitivity of somatic cells are dependent on the cell cycle phase, it remains largely unclear how the irradiation of zygotes at different phases affects cell cycle progression and preimplantation development. Here, mouse zygotes were irradiated with 10 Gy γ-rays at all four cell cycle phases. DNA damage checkpoints were activated by γ-irradiation at the G2 phase, but not at the G1, S, and M phases. The absence of DNA damage checkpoints at the G1 and M phases seems to be due to the low abundance of phosphorylated CHK2, which plays a key role in checkpoint activation in response to ionizing radiation. The cause of the inoperative S phase checkpoint may lie downstream of CHK2 activation. The inactive DNA damage checkpoints at the G1 and S phases contributed to micronucleus formation in the subsequent 2-cell stage, whereas irradiation at the M phase led to the highest incidence of chromatin bridges. The low developmental rates of embryos irradiated at the G1, S, and M phases suggest that embryos with these two types of chromatin abnormalities are prone to developmental failure. Taken together, these results suggest that the radiosensitivity of zygotes can be ascribed to a defective DDR at the G1, S, and M phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Wang
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan
| | - Shoji Oda
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan
| | - Masataka G Suzuki
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Mitani
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan
| | - Fugaku Aoki
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Japan.
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11
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Talluri TR, Kumaresan A, Sinha MK, Paul N, Ebenezer Samuel King JP, Datta TK. Integrated multi-omics analyses reveals molecules governing sperm metabolism potentially influence bull fertility. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10692. [PMID: 35739152 PMCID: PMC9226030 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14589-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bull fertility is of paramount importance in bovine industry because semen from a single bull is used to breed several thousands of cows; however, so far, no reliable test is available for bull fertility prediction. In the present study, spermatozoa from high- and low-fertility bulls were subjected to high-throughput transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic analysis. Using an integrated multi-omics approach the molecular differences between high- and low-fertility bulls were identified. We identified a total of 18,068 transcripts, 5041 proteins and 3704 metabolites in bull spermatozoa, of which the expression of 4766 transcripts, 785 proteins and 33 metabolites were dysregulated between high- and low-fertility bulls. At transcript level, several genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation pathway were found to be downregulated, while at protein level genes involved in metabolic pathways were significantly downregulated in low-fertility bulls. We found that metabolites involved in Taurine and hypotaurine metabolism were significantly downregulated in low-fertility bulls. Integrated multi-omics analysis revealed the interaction of dysregulated transcripts, proteins and metabolites in major metabolic pathways, including Butanoate metabolism, Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, Methionine and cysteine metabolism, Phosphatidyl inositol phosphate, pyrimidine metabolism and saturated fatty acid beta oxidation. These findings collectively indicate that molecules governing sperm metabolism potentially influence bull fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thirumala Rao Talluri
- Theriogenology Laboratory, Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Southern Regional Station of ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560030, India
| | - Arumugam Kumaresan
- Theriogenology Laboratory, Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Southern Regional Station of ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560030, India.
| | - Manish Kumar Sinha
- Theriogenology Laboratory, Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Southern Regional Station of ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560030, India
| | - Nilendu Paul
- Theriogenology Laboratory, Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Southern Regional Station of ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560030, India
| | - John Peter Ebenezer Samuel King
- Theriogenology Laboratory, Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Southern Regional Station of ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Bengaluru, Karnataka, 560030, India
| | - Tirtha K Datta
- Animal Genomics Laboratory, ICAR - National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, 132 001, India
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12
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Wyatt CDR, Pernaute B, Gohr A, Miret-Cuesta M, Goyeneche L, Rovira Q, Salzer MC, Boke E, Bogdanovic O, Bonnal S, Irimia M. A developmentally programmed splicing failure contributes to DNA damage response attenuation during mammalian zygotic genome activation. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabn4935. [PMID: 35417229 PMCID: PMC9007516 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abn4935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Transition from maternal to embryonic transcriptional control is crucial for embryogenesis. However, alternative splicing regulation during this process remains understudied. Using transcriptomic data from human, mouse, and cow preimplantation development, we show that the stage of zygotic genome activation (ZGA) exhibits the highest levels of exon skipping diversity reported for any cell or tissue type. Much of this exon skipping is temporary, leads to disruptive noncanonical isoforms, and occurs in genes enriched for DNA damage response in the three species. Two core spliceosomal components, Snrpb and Snrpd2, regulate these patterns. These genes have low maternal expression at ZGA and increase sharply thereafter. Microinjection of Snrpb/d2 messenger RNA into mouse zygotes reduces the levels of exon skipping at ZGA and leads to increased p53-mediated DNA damage response. We propose that mammalian embryos undergo an evolutionarily conserved, developmentally programmed splicing failure at ZGA that contributes to the attenuation of cellular responses to DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D. R. Wyatt
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Barbara Pernaute
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - André Gohr
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Miret-Cuesta
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lucia Goyeneche
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Quirze Rovira
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marion C. Salzer
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elvan Boke
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ozren Bogdanovic
- Genomics and Epigenetics Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Sophie Bonnal
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manuel Irimia
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- ICREA, Barcelona, Spain
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13
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Cleavage of Early Mouse Embryo with Damaged DNA. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073516. [PMID: 35408877 PMCID: PMC8998204 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The preimplantation period of embryogenesis is crucial during mammalian ontogenesis. During this period, the mitotic cycles are initiated, the embryonic genome is activated, and the primary differentiation of embryonic cells occurs. All cellular abnormalities occurring in this period are the primary cause of fetal developmental disorders. DNA damage is a serious cause of developmental failure. In the context of DNA damage response on the cellular level, we analyzed the course of embryogenesis and phenotypic changes during the cleavage of a preimplantation embryo. Our results document that DNA damage induced before the resumption of DNA synthesis in a zygote can significantly affect the preimplantation development of the embryo. This developmental ability is related to the level of the DNA damage. We showed that one-cell embryos can correct the first cleavage cycle despite low DNA damage and incomplete replication. It seems that the phenomenon creates a predisposition to a segregation disorder of condensed chromatin that results in the formation of micronuclei in the developmental stages following the first cleavage. We conclude that zygote tolerates a certain degree of DNA damage and considers its priority to complete the first cleavage stage and continue embryogenesis as far as possible.
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Anger M, Radonova L, Horakova A, Sekach D, Charousova M. Impact of Global Transcriptional Silencing on Cell Cycle Regulation and Chromosome Segregation in Early Mammalian Embryos. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:9073. [PMID: 34445775 PMCID: PMC8396661 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22169073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The onset of an early development is, in mammals, characterized by profound changes of multiple aspects of cellular morphology and behavior. These are including, but not limited to, fertilization and the merging of parental genomes with a subsequent transition from the meiotic into the mitotic cycle, followed by global changes of chromatin epigenetic modifications, a gradual decrease in cell size and the initiation of gene expression from the newly formed embryonic genome. Some of these important, and sometimes also dramatic, changes are executed within the period during which the gene transcription is globally silenced or not progressed, and the regulation of most cellular activities, including those mentioned above, relies on controlled translation. It is known that the blastomeres within an early embryo are prone to chromosome segregation errors, which might, when affecting a significant proportion of a cell within the embryo, compromise its further development. In this review, we discuss how the absence of transcription affects the transition from the oocyte to the embryo and what impact global transcriptional silencing might have on the basic cell cycle and chromosome segregation controlling mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Anger
- Central European Institute of Technology, Department of Genetics and Reproduction, Veterinary Research Institute, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic; (L.R.); (A.H.); (D.S.); (M.C.)
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15
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Chenouard V, Remy S, Tesson L, Ménoret S, Ouisse LH, Cherifi Y, Anegon I. Advances in Genome Editing and Application to the Generation of Genetically Modified Rat Models. Front Genet 2021; 12:615491. [PMID: 33959146 PMCID: PMC8093876 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.615491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The rat has been extensively used as a small animal model. Many genetically engineered rat models have emerged in the last two decades, and the advent of gene-specific nucleases has accelerated their generation in recent years. This review covers the techniques and advances used to generate genetically engineered rat lines and their application to the development of rat models more broadly, such as conditional knockouts and reporter gene strains. In addition, genome-editing techniques that remain to be explored in the rat are discussed. The review also focuses more particularly on two areas in which extensive work has been done: human genetic diseases and immune system analysis. Models are thoroughly described in these two areas and highlight the competitive advantages of rat models over available corresponding mouse versions. The objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive description of the advantages and potential of rat models for addressing specific scientific questions and to characterize the best genome-engineering tools for developing new projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Chenouard
- CHU Nantes, Inserm, Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie, UMR 1064, ITUN, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
- genOway, Lyon, France
| | - Séverine Remy
- CHU Nantes, Inserm, Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie, UMR 1064, ITUN, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Laurent Tesson
- CHU Nantes, Inserm, Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie, UMR 1064, ITUN, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Séverine Ménoret
- CHU Nantes, Inserm, Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie, UMR 1064, ITUN, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
- CHU Nantes, Inserm, CNRS, SFR Santé, Inserm UMS 016, CNRS UMS 3556, Nantes Université, Nantes, France
| | - Laure-Hélène Ouisse
- CHU Nantes, Inserm, Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie, UMR 1064, ITUN, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | | | - Ignacio Anegon
- CHU Nantes, Inserm, Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie, UMR 1064, ITUN, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
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16
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Luo L, Dang Y, Shi Y, Zhao P, Zhang Y, Zhang K. SIN3A Regulates Porcine Early Embryonic Development by Modulating CCNB1 Expression. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:604232. [PMID: 33692994 PMCID: PMC7937639 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.604232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
SIN3A is the central scaffold protein of the SIN3/histone deacetylase (HDAC) transcriptional repressor complex. SIN3A participates in the mouse preimplantation development by fine-tuning HDAC1 expression. However, it remains unresolved if this functional significance of SIN3A was conserved in other mammals. Herein, RNA-seq results show a large amount of SIN3A mRNA is present in oocytes and early embryos prior to embryonic genome activation and a low amount thereafter, suggesting a maternal origin of SIN3A in pigs, cattle, mice, and humans. Interestingly, immunofluorescence data show that SIN3A protein level peaks at four-cell stage in pigs compared with morula stage in cattle. SIN3A depletion in early embryos causes a developmental arrest at two-cell stage in pigs but does not affect bovine early embryonic development. In contrast with mouse data, SIN3A depletion results in only a slight decrease and even no difference in HDAC1 expression in porcine and bovine early embryos, respectively. In addition, HDAC1 knockdown does not cause two-cell block but leads to a reduced blastocyst rate. By using unbiased RNA-seq approach, we found that Cyclin B1 (CCNB1) transcript level is dramatically reduced. Moreover, CCNB1 knockdown results in a similar phenotype as SIN3A depletion. Injection of exogenous CCNB1 mRNA into SIN3A-depleted embryos could partly rescue embryonic development to pass two-cell stage. In conclusion, our results indicate SIN3A plays an essential role in porcine early embryonic development, which probably involves the regulation of CCNB1 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Luo
- Laboratory of Mammalian Molecular Embryology, Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Local Livestock and Poultry Genetical Resource Conservation and Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Yanna Dang
- Laboratory of Mammalian Molecular Embryology, Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yan Shi
- Laboratory of Mammalian Molecular Embryology, Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Panpan Zhao
- Laboratory of Mammalian Molecular Embryology, Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yunhai Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Laboratory of Local Livestock and Poultry Genetical Resource Conservation and Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Kun Zhang
- Laboratory of Mammalian Molecular Embryology, Assisted Reproduction Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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17
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Zbakh H, Zubía E, De Los Reyes C, Calderón-Montaño JM, Motilva V. Anticancer Activities of Meroterpenoids Isolated from the Brown Alga Cystoseira usneoides against the Human Colon Cancer Cells HT-29. Foods 2020; 9:foods9030300. [PMID: 32155797 PMCID: PMC7143549 DOI: 10.3390/foods9030300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common types of cancers and a leading cause of cancer death worldwide. The current treatment for CRC mainly involves surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. However, due to the side effects and the emergence of drug resistance, the search for new anticancer agents, pharmacologically safe and effective, is needed. In the present study, we have investigated the anticancer effects of eight algal meroterpenoids (AMTs, 1-8) isolated from the brown seaweed Cystoseira usneoides and their underlying mechanisms of action using HT-29, a highly metastatic human colon cancer cell line. All the tested meroterpenoids inhibited the growth of HT-29 malignant cells and were less toxic towards non-cancer colon cells, with the AMTs 1 and 5 exhibiting selectivity indexes of 5.26 and 5.23, respectively. Treatment of HT-29 cells with the AMTs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 induced cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase and, in some instances, apoptosis (compounds 2, 3, and 5). Compounds 1-8 also exhibited significant inhibitory effects on the migration and/or invasion of colon cancer cells. Mechanistic analysis demonstrated that the AMTs 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 reduced phosphorylation levels of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and the AMTs 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8 decreased phosphorylation of c-JUN N-terminal kinase (JNK). Moreover, the AMTs 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 8 inhibited phosphorylation levels of protein kinase B (AKT) in colon carcinoma cells. These results provide new insights into the mechanisms and functions of the meroterpenoids of C. usneoides, which exhibit an anticancer effect on HT-29 colon cancer cells by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis via the downregulation of ERK/JNK/AKT signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanaa Zbakh
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, 41012 Seville, Spain; (H.Z.); (J.M.C.-M.)
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Abdelmalek Essaâdi, Tetouan 93000, Morocco
| | - Eva Zubía
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain; (E.Z.); (C.D.L.R.)
| | - Carolina De Los Reyes
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, University of Cadiz, 11510 Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain; (E.Z.); (C.D.L.R.)
| | - José M. Calderón-Montaño
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, 41012 Seville, Spain; (H.Z.); (J.M.C.-M.)
| | - Virginia Motilva
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, 41012 Seville, Spain; (H.Z.); (J.M.C.-M.)
- Correspondence:
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18
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Schneider I, Ellenberg J. Mysteries in embryonic development: How can errors arise so frequently at the beginning of mammalian life? PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000173. [PMID: 30840627 PMCID: PMC6422315 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chromosome segregation errors occur frequently during female meiosis but also in the first mitoses of mammalian preimplantation development. Such errors can lead to aneuploidy, spontaneous abortions, and birth defects. Some of the mechanisms underlying these errors in meiosis have been deciphered but which mechanisms could cause chromosome missegregation in the first embryonic cleavage divisions is mostly a “mystery”. In this article, we describe the starting conditions and challenges of these preimplantation divisions, which might impair faithful chromosome segregation. We also highlight the pending research to provide detailed insight into the mechanisms and regulation of preimplantation mitoses. Starting a new life is a challenging business. This Essay explores the changes at the oocyte-to-embryo transition to highlight the circumstances under which the very first and decisive — but ‘mysteriously’ error-prone — mitotic divisions occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabell Schneider
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
- Candidate for joint PhD degree between EMBL and Heidelberg University, Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan Ellenberg
- Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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19
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Bhawe K, Roy D. Interplay between NRF1, E2F4 and MYC transcription factors regulating common target genes contributes to cancer development and progression. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2018; 41:465-484. [DOI: 10.1007/s13402-018-0395-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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20
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Effect of exogenous transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) on early bovine embryo development. ZYGOTE 2018; 26:232-241. [DOI: 10.1017/s096719941800014x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
SummaryDuring preimplantation development, embryos are exposed and have the capacity to respond to different growth factors present in the maternal environment. Among these factors, transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) is a well known modulator of embryonic growth and development. However, its action during the first stages of development, when the embryo transits through the oviduct, has not been yet elucidated. The objective of the present study was to examine the effect of early exposure to exogenous TGF-β1 on embryo development and expression of pluripotency (OCT4, NANOG) and DNA methylation (DNMT1, DNMT3A, DNMT3B) genes in bovine embryos produced in vitro. First, gene expression analysis of TGF-β receptors confirmed a stage-specific expression pattern, showing greater mRNA abundance of TGFBR1 and TGFBR2 from the 2- to the 8-cell stage, before embryonic genome activation. Second, embryo culture for the first 48 h in serum-free CR1aa medium supplemented with 50 or 100 ng/ml recombinant TGF-β1 did not affect the cleavage and blastocyst rate (days 7 and 8). However, RT-qPCR analysis showed a significant increase in the relative abundance of NANOG and DNMT3A in the 8-cell stage embryos and expanded blastocysts (day 8) derived from TGF-β1 treated embryos. These results suggest an early action of exogenous TGF-β1 on the bovine embryo, highlighting the importance to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the role of TGF-β signalling during early embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Kaldis
- Cell Division and Cancer Research, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and ResearchSingapore, Singapore; Department of Biochemistry, National University of SingaporeSingapore, Singapore
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