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Dos Santos E, Cochemé HM. How does a fly die? Insights into ageing from the pathophysiology of Drosophila mortality. GeroScience 2024:10.1007/s11357-024-01158-4. [PMID: 38642259 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-024-01158-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a common animal model in ageing research. Large populations of flies are used to study the impact of genetic, nutritional and pharmacological interventions on survival. However, the processes through which flies die and their relative prevalence in Drosophila populations are still comparatively unknown. Understanding the causes of death in an animal model is essential to dissect the lifespan-extending interventions that are organism- or disease-specific from those broadly applicable to ageing. Here, we review the pathophysiological processes that can lead to fly death and discuss their relation to ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliano Dos Santos
- MRC Laboratory of Medical Sciences (LMS), Hammersmith Hospital Campus, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0HS, UK
- Institute of Clinical Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0HS, UK
| | - Helena M Cochemé
- MRC Laboratory of Medical Sciences (LMS), Hammersmith Hospital Campus, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0HS, UK.
- Institute of Clinical Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0HS, UK.
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2
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Touré H, Herrmann JL, Szuplewski S, Girard-Misguich F. Drosophila melanogaster as an organism model for studying cystic fibrosis and its major associated microbial infections. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0024023. [PMID: 37847031 PMCID: PMC10652941 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00240-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a human genetic disease caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene that encodes a chloride channel. The most severe clinical manifestation is associated with chronic pulmonary infections by pathogenic and opportunistic microbes. Drosophila melanogaster has become the invertebrate model of choice for modeling microbial infections and studying the induced innate immune response. Here, we review its contribution to the understanding of infections with six major pathogens associated with CF (Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cepacia, Mycobacterium abscessus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Aspergillus fumigatus) together with the perspectives opened by the recent availability of two CF models in this model organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamadoun Touré
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INSERM, Infection et Inflammation, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
| | - Jean-Louis Herrmann
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INSERM, Infection et Inflammation, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpitaux Universitaires Ile-de-France Ouest, GHU Paris-Saclay, Hôpital Raymond Poincaré, Garches, France
| | - Sébastien Szuplewski
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, Laboratoire de Génétique et Biologie Cellulaire, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
| | - Fabienne Girard-Misguich
- Université Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, INSERM, Infection et Inflammation, Montigny-le-Bretonneux, France
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3
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von Bredow YM, Prochazkova P, Dvorak J, Skanta F, Trenczek TE, Bilej M, von Bredow CR. Differential expression of immunity-related genes in larval Manduca sexta tissues in response to gut and systemic infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1258142. [PMID: 37900309 PMCID: PMC10603244 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1258142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The midgut epithelium functions as tissue for nutrient uptake as well as physical barrier against pathogens. Additionally, it responds to pathogen contact by production and release of various factors including antimicrobial peptides, similar to the systemic innate immune response. However, if such a response is restricted to a local stimulus or if it appears in response to a systemic infection, too is a rather underexplored topic in insect immunity. We addressed the role of the midgut and the role of systemic immune tissues in the defense against gut-borne and systemic infections, respectively. Methods Manduca sexta larvae were challenged with DAP-type peptidoglycan bacteria - Bacillus thuringiensis for local gut infection and Escherichia coli for systemic stimulation. We compared the immune response to both infection models by measuring mRNA levels of four selected immunity-related genes in midgut, fat body, hematopoietic organs (HOs), and hemocytes, and determined hemolymph antimicrobial activity. Hemocytes and HOs were tested for presence and distribution of lysozyme mRNA and protein. Results The midgut and circulating hemocytes exhibited a significantly increased level of lysozyme mRNA in response to gut infection but did not significantly alter expression in response to a systemic infection. Conversely, fat body and HOs responded to both infection models by altered mRNA levels of at least one gene monitored. Most, but not all hemocytes and HO cells contain lysozyme mRNA and protein. Discussion These data suggest that the gut recruits immune-related tissues in response to gut infection whereas systemic infections do not induce a response in the midgut. The experimental approach implies a skewed cross-talk: An intestinal infection triggers immune activity in systemic immune organs, while a systemic infection does not elicit any or only a restricted immune response in the midgut. The HOs, which form and release hemocytes in larval M. sexta, i) synthesize lysozyme, and ii) respond to immune challenges by increased immune gene expression. These findings strongly suggest that they not only provide phagocytes for the cellular immune response but also synthesize humoral immune components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvette M. von Bredow
- Institute of Zoology and Developmental Biology, Justus-Liebig-University Gießen, Gießen, Germany
| | - Petra Prochazkova
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jiri Dvorak
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Frantisek Skanta
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Tina E. Trenczek
- Institute of Zoology and Developmental Biology, Justus-Liebig-University Gießen, Gießen, Germany
| | - Martin Bilej
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Christoph-Rüdiger von Bredow
- Institute of Zoology and Developmental Biology, Justus-Liebig-University Gießen, Gießen, Germany
- Applied Zoology, Department of Biology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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4
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Hirschhäuser A, Molitor D, Salinas G, Großhans J, Rust K, Bogdan S. Single-cell transcriptomics identifies new blood cell populations in Drosophila released at the onset of metamorphosis. Development 2023; 150:dev201767. [PMID: 37681301 PMCID: PMC10560556 DOI: 10.1242/dev.201767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Drosophila blood cells called hemocytes form an efficient barrier against infections and tissue damage. During metamorphosis, hemocytes undergo tremendous changes in their shape and behavior, preparing them for tissue clearance. Yet, the diversity and functional plasticity of pupal blood cells have not been explored. Here, we combine single-cell transcriptomics and high-resolution microscopy to dissect the heterogeneity and plasticity of pupal hemocytes. We identified undifferentiated and specified hemocytes with different molecular signatures associated with distinct functions such as antimicrobial, antifungal immune defense, cell adhesion or secretion. Strikingly, we identified a highly migratory and immune-responsive pupal cell population expressing typical markers of the posterior signaling center (PSC), which is known to be an important niche in the larval lymph gland. PSC-like cells become restricted to the abdominal segments and are morphologically very distinct from typical Hemolectin (Hml)-positive plasmatocytes. G-TRACE lineage experiments further suggest that PSC-like cells can transdifferentiate to lamellocytes triggered by parasitoid wasp infestation. In summary, we present the first molecular description of pupal Drosophila blood cells, providing insights into blood cell functional diversification and plasticity during pupal metamorphosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Hirschhäuser
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Department of Molecular Cell Physiology, Philipps University Marburg, Emil-Mannkopff-Strasse 2, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Darius Molitor
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Department of Molecular Cell Physiology, Philipps University Marburg, Emil-Mannkopff-Strasse 2, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Gabriela Salinas
- NGS-Integrative Genomics Core Unit, Department of Human Genetics, University Medical Center Göttingen, Justus von Liebig Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jörg Großhans
- Department of Biology, Philipps University Marburg, Karl-von-Frisch-Strasse 8, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Katja Rust
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Department of Molecular Cell Physiology, Philipps University Marburg, Emil-Mannkopff-Strasse 2, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Sven Bogdan
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Department of Molecular Cell Physiology, Philipps University Marburg, Emil-Mannkopff-Strasse 2, 35037 Marburg, Germany
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5
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Hossain MI, Saleh NUA, Numan A, Hossain MM, Uddin MA, Hossain MS. Bombyx mori as a model for Niallia circulans pathogenicity. Drug Discov Ther 2023; 17:18-25. [PMID: 36843035 DOI: 10.5582/ddt.2022.01112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
Increasing incidences of resistance to antibiotics by pathogenic bacteria is a worldwide concern and isolation of antibiotic-resistant strains of Niallia circulans (formerly known as Bacillus circulans), an opportunistic human pathogen, has been reported. Due to their lack of ethical constraints as well as their cost-effective rearing, invertebrates have been commonly used to study infection by bacteria pathogenic to humans. In this study, we demonstrate that a foodborne strain of N. circulans kills larvae of the silkworm, Bombyx mori within 48 h after hemolymph injection. The infected larvae turned black with an increase in the phenoloxidase (PO) activity in the hemolymph. Midgut injection of N. circulans resulted in the killing of larvae within 96 h. A significant increase in bacterial load was observed in the hemolymph 12 h after infection. The viable hemocyte number decreased to 48% within 12 h of injection. RT-qPCR analysis revealed that upon hemolymph infection with N. circulans the expression of the antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes, Bmdefensin-B and Bmgloverin-3, were upregulated 2.5- and 1.8-fold, respectively, whereas 1.6-fold upregulation was observed for BmToll-2 in the larval fat body. Therapeutic effects of antibiotics like tetracycline, imipenem, ceftriaxone, ampicillin, and clindamycin were observed against N. circulans in the Bombyx larvae with varying efficacies. Results from this study suggest that larvae of B. mori can be used as infection models for screening therapeutics that are effective against N. circulans.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ismail Hossain
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Health and Life Sciences, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Nusrat U A Saleh
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Health and Life Sciences, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Al Numan
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Health and Life Sciences, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - M Mahtab Hossain
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Health and Life Sciences, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - M Aftab Uddin
- Bangladesh Sericulture Research and Training Institute, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
| | - Muktadir S Hossain
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Health and Life Sciences, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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6
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Kietz C, Meinander A. Drosophila caspases as guardians of host-microbe interactions. Cell Death Differ 2023; 30:227-236. [PMID: 35810247 PMCID: PMC9950452 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-022-01038-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
An intact cell death machinery is not only crucial for successful embryonic development and tissue homeostasis, but participates also in the defence against pathogens and contributes to a balanced immune response. Centrally involved in the regulation of both cell death and inflammatory immune responses is the evolutionarily conserved family of cysteine proteases named caspases. The Drosophila melanogaster genome encodes for seven caspases, several of which display dual functions, participating in apoptotic signalling and beyond. Among the Drosophila caspases, the caspase-8 homologue Dredd has a well-characterised role in inflammatory signalling activated by bacterial infections, and functions as a driver of NF-κB-mediated immune responses. Regarding the other Drosophila caspases, studies focusing on tissue-specific immune signalling and host-microbe interactions have recently revealed immunoregulatory functions of the initiator caspase Dronc and the effector caspase Drice. The aim of this review is to give an overview of the signalling cascades involved in the Drosophila humoral innate immune response against pathogens and of their caspase-mediated regulation. Furthermore, the apoptotic role of caspases during antibacterial and antiviral immune activation will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christa Kietz
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Cell Biology, Åbo Akademi University, BioCity, Turku, Finland
| | - Annika Meinander
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Cell Biology, Åbo Akademi University, BioCity, Turku, Finland.
- InFLAMES Research Flagship Center, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
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Ghosh AC, Hu Y, Tattikota SG, Liu Y, Comjean A, Perrimon N. Modeling exercise using optogenetically contractible Drosophila larvae. BMC Genomics 2022; 23:623. [PMID: 36042416 PMCID: PMC9425970 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-022-08845-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathophysiological effects of a number of metabolic and age-related disorders can be prevented to some extent by exercise and increased physical activity. However, the molecular mechanisms that contribute to the beneficial effects of muscle activity remain poorly explored. Availability of a fast, inexpensive, and genetically tractable model system for muscle activity and exercise will allow the rapid identification and characterization of molecular mechanisms that mediate the beneficial effects of exercise. Here, we report the development and characterization of an optogenetically-inducible muscle contraction (OMC) model in Drosophila larvae that we used to study acute exercise-like physiological responses. To characterize muscle-specific transcriptional responses to acute exercise, we performed bulk mRNA-sequencing, revealing striking similarities between acute exercise-induced genes in flies and those previously identified in humans. Our larval muscle contraction model opens a path for rapid identification and characterization of exercise-induced factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpan C Ghosh
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Yanhui Hu
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Yifang Liu
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Aram Comjean
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Norbert Perrimon
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA, USA.
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8
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Excreted secreted products from the parasitic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae manipulate the Drosophila melanogaster immune response. Sci Rep 2022; 12:14237. [PMID: 35987963 PMCID: PMC9392720 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-18722-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Steinernema carpocapsae is an entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) that rapidly infects and kills a wide range of insect hosts and has been linked to host immunosuppression during the initial stages of infection. The lethal nature of S. carpocapsae infections has previously been credited to its symbiotic bacteria; however, it has become evident that the nematodes are able to effectively kill their hosts independently through their excretion/secretion products (ESPs). Here we examined how the adult Drosophila melanogaster immune system is modulated in response to S. carpocapsae ESPs in an attempt to ascertain individual pathogenic contributions of the isolated compound. We found that the S. carpocapsae ESPs decrease the survival of D. melanogaster adult flies, they induce the expression of certain antimicrobial peptide-encoding genes, and they cause significant reduction in phenoloxidase enzyme activity and delay in the melanization response in males flies. We also report that S. carpocapsae ESPs affect hemocyte numbers in both male and female individuals. Our results indicate the manipulative role of EPN ESPs and reveal sex-specific differences in the host response against nematode infection factors. These findings are beneficial as they promote our understanding of the molecular basis of nematode pathogenicity and the parasite components that influence nematode-host interactions.
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9
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Yu S, Luo F, Xu Y, Zhang Y, Jin LH. Drosophila Innate Immunity Involves Multiple Signaling Pathways and Coordinated Communication Between Different Tissues. Front Immunol 2022; 13:905370. [PMID: 35911716 PMCID: PMC9336466 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.905370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The innate immune response provides the first line of defense against invading pathogens, and immune disorders cause a variety of diseases. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster employs multiple innate immune reactions to resist infection. First, epithelial tissues function as physical barriers to prevent pathogen invasion. In addition, macrophage-like plasmatocytes eliminate intruders through phagocytosis, and lamellocytes encapsulate large particles, such as wasp eggs, that cannot be phagocytosed. Regarding humoral immune responses, the fat body, equivalent to the mammalian liver, secretes antimicrobial peptides into hemolymph, killing bacteria and fungi. Drosophila has been shown to be a powerful in vivo model for studying the mechanism of innate immunity and host-pathogen interactions because Drosophila and higher organisms share conserved signaling pathways and factors. Moreover, the ease with which Drosophila genetic and physiological characteristics can be manipulated prevents interference by adaptive immunity. In this review, we discuss the signaling pathways activated in Drosophila innate immunity, namely, the Toll, Imd, JNK, JAK/STAT pathways, and other factors, as well as relevant regulatory networks. We also review the mechanisms by which different tissues, including hemocytes, the fat body, the lymph gland, muscles, the gut and the brain coordinate innate immune responses. Furthermore, the latest studies in this field are outlined in this review. In summary, understanding the mechanism underlying innate immunity orchestration in Drosophila will help us better study human innate immunity-related diseases.
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10
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Pathogen infection routes and host innate immunity: Lessons from insects. Immunol Lett 2022; 247:46-51. [PMID: 35667452 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2022.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in insect-pathogen interactions have started to reveal the role of insect tissues and organs as natural infection routes for parasites and microbial pathogens. Here we summarize this information highlighting the micro- and macro-parasites that enter insects through distinct infection routes and link them to innate immune activity. We also examine whether the infection route determines the insect immune response and if the resulting immunological and physiological processes underpinning these different routes of infection are clearly distinct. Understanding how the infection route is associated with the robustness in insect host defense will help us identify conserved evolutionary and ecological patterns in order to design novel strategies for the management of destructive agricultural pests and disease vectors.
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11
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Rouka E, Gourgoulianni N, Lüpold S, Hatzoglou C, Gourgoulianis KI, Zarogiannis SG. Prediction and enrichment analyses of the Homo sapiens-Drosophila melanogaster COPD-related orthologs. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2021; 322:R77-R82. [PMID: 34877887 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00092.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The significant similarities in airway epithelial cells between mammals and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster have rendered the latter an important model organism for studies of chronic inflammatory lung diseases. Focusing on the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), we here mapped human gene orthologs associated with this disease in D. melanogaster to identify functionally equivalent genes for immediate, further screening with the fruit fly model. The DIOPT-DIST tool was accessed for the prediction of the COPD-associated orthologs between humans and Drosophila. Enrichment analyses with respect to pathways of the retrieved functional homologs were performed using the ToppFun and FlyMine tools, identifying 73 unique human genes as well as 438 fruit fly genes. The ToppFun analysis verified that the human gene list is associated with COPD phenotypes. Further, the FlyMine investigation highlighted that the Drosophila genes are functionally connected mainly with the 'ABC-family proteins mediated transport' and the 'beta-catenin independent WNT signaling pathway'. These results suggest an evolutionarily conserved role towards responses to inhaled toxicants and CO2 in both species. We reason that the predicted orthologous genes should be further studied in the Drosophila models of cigarette smoke-induced COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erasmia Rouka
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, BIOPOLIS, Larissa, Greece
| | - Natalia Gourgoulianni
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Lüpold
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Chrissi Hatzoglou
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, BIOPOLIS, Larissa, Greece.,Department of Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, BIOPOLIS, Larissa, Greece
| | - Konstantinos I Gourgoulianis
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, BIOPOLIS, Larissa, Greece
| | - Sotirios G Zarogiannis
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, BIOPOLIS, Larissa, Greece.,Department of Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, BIOPOLIS, Larissa, Greece
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12
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Dziedziech A, Theopold U. Proto-pyroptosis: An Ancestral Origin for Mammalian Inflammatory Cell Death Mechanism in Drosophila melanogaster. J Mol Biol 2021; 434:167333. [PMID: 34756921 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2021.167333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Pyroptosis has been described in mammalian systems to be a form of programmed cell death that is important in immune function through the subsequent release of cytokines and immune effectors upon cell bursting. This form of cell death has been increasingly well-characterized in mammals and can occur using alternative routes however, across phyla, there has been little evidence for the existence of pyroptosis. Here we provide evidence for an ancient origin of pyroptosis in an in vivo immune scenario in Drosophila melanogaster. Crystal cells, a type of insect blood cell, were recruited to wounds and ruptured subsequently releasing their cytosolic content in a caspase-dependent manner. This inflammatory-based programmed cell death mechanism fits the features of pyroptosis, never before described in an in vivo immune scenario in insects and relies on ancient apoptotic machinery to induce proto-pyroptosis. Further, we unveil key players upstream in the activation of cell death in these cells including the apoptosome which may play an alternative role akin to the inflammasome in proto-pyroptosis. Thus, Drosophila may be a suitable model for studying the functional significance of pyroptosis in the innate immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Dziedziech
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, SE 10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - U Theopold
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, SE 10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
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13
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Barik B, Sahoo SJ, Maji B, Bag J, Mishra M, Dash P. Microwave-Assisted Development of Magnetically Recyclable PANI-Modified CoFe 2O 4-WO 3 p–n–n Heterojunction: A Visible-Light-Driven Photocatalyst for Antibiotic Toxicity Reduction. Ind Eng Chem Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.1c02147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bapun Barik
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
| | - Shital Jyotsna Sahoo
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
| | - Banalata Maji
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
| | - Janmejaya Bag
- Department of Life Science, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
| | - Monalisa Mishra
- Department of Life Science, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
| | - Priyabrat Dash
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
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14
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Khalili D, Kalcher C, Baumgartner S, Theopold U. Anti-Fibrotic Activity of an Antimicrobial Peptide in a Drosophila Model. J Innate Immun 2021; 13:376-390. [PMID: 34000729 PMCID: PMC8613551 DOI: 10.1159/000516104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibrotic lesions accompany several pathological conditions, including tumors. We show that expression of a dominant-active form of the Ras oncogene in Drosophila salivary glands (SGs) leads to redistribution of components of the basement membrane (BM) and fibrotic lesions. Similar to several types of mammalian fibrosis, the disturbed BM attracts clot components, including insect transglutaminase and phenoloxidase. SG epithelial cells show reduced apicobasal polarity accompanied by a loss of secretory activity. Both the fibrotic lesions and the reduced cell polarity are alleviated by ectopic expression of the antimicrobial peptide drosomycin (Drs), which also restores the secretory activity of the SGs. In addition to extracellular matrix components, both Drs and F-actin localize to fibrotic lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilan Khalili
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute (MBW), Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christina Kalcher
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute (MBW), Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Stefan Baumgartner
- Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Ulrich Theopold
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute (MBW), Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Zhou F, Liu B, Liu X, Li Y, Wang L, Huang J, Luo G, Wang X. The Impact of Microbiome and Microbiota-Derived Sodium Butyrate on Drosophila Transcriptome and Metabolome Revealed by Multi-Omics Analysis. Metabolites 2021; 11:298. [PMID: 34066348 PMCID: PMC8148185 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11050298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The host microbiome plays an important role in regulating physiology through microbiota-derived metabolites during host-microbiome interactions. However, molecular mechanism underly host-microbiome interactions remains to be explored. In this study, we used Drosophila as the model to investigate the influence of microbiome and microbiota-derived metabolite sodium butyrate on host transcriptome and metabolome. We established both a sterile Drosophila model and a conventional Drosophila model to demonstrate the role of sodium butyrate. Using multi-omics analysis, we found that microbiome and sodium butyrate could impact host gene expression patterns in both the sterile Drosophila model and the conventional Drosophila model. The analysis of gut microbial using 16S rRNA sequencing showed sodium butyrate treatment also influenced Drosophila bacterial structures. In addition, Drosophila metabolites identified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-MS/MS were shown to be affected by sodium butyrate treatment with lipids as the dominant changed components. Our integrative analysis of the transcriptome, the microbiome, and the metabolome data identified candidate transcripts that are coregulated by sodium butyrate. Taken together, our results reveal the impact of the microbiome and microbiota-derived sodium butyrate on host transcriptome and metabolome, and our work provides a better understanding of host-microbiome interactions at the molecular level with multi-omics data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Zhou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; (F.Z.); (X.L.); (L.W.); (J.H.)
| | - Biaodi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China; (B.L.); (Y.L.)
| | - Xin Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; (F.Z.); (X.L.); (L.W.); (J.H.)
| | - Yan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China; (B.L.); (Y.L.)
| | - Luoluo Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; (F.Z.); (X.L.); (L.W.); (J.H.)
| | - Jia Huang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; (F.Z.); (X.L.); (L.W.); (J.H.)
| | - Guanzheng Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China; (B.L.); (Y.L.)
| | - Xiaoyun Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental Biology and Applied Technology, Institute of Insect Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China; (F.Z.); (X.L.); (L.W.); (J.H.)
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16
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Chen F, Su R, Ni S, Liu Y, Huang J, Li G, Wang Q, Zhang X, Yang Y. Context-dependent responses of Drosophila intestinal stem cells to intracellular reactive oxygen species. Redox Biol 2020; 39:101835. [PMID: 33360688 PMCID: PMC7772796 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute to cellular redox environment and serve as signaling molecules. Excessive ROS can lead to oxidative stress that are involved in a broad spectrum of physiological and pathological conditions. Stem cells have unique ROS regulation while cancer cells frequently show a constitutive oxidative stress that is associated with the invasive phenotype. Antioxidants have been proposed to forestall tumor progression while targeted oxidants have been used to destroy tumor cells. However, the delicate beneficial range of ROS levels for stem cells and tumor cells under distinct contexts remains elusive. Here, we used Drosophila midgut intestinal stem cell (ISCs) as an in vivo model system to tackle this question. The ROS levels of ISCs remained low in comparison to that of differentiated cells and increased with ageing, which was accompanied by elevated proliferation of ISCs in aged Drosophila. Neither upregulation nor downregulation of ROS levels significantly affected ISCs, implicating an intrinsic homeostatic range of ROS in ISCs. Interestingly, we observed similar moderately elevated ROS levels in both tumor-like ISCs induced by Notch (N) depletion and extracellular matrix (ECM)-deprived ISCs induced by β-integrin (mys) depletion. Elevated ROS levels further promoted the proliferation of tumor-like ISCs while reduced ROS levels suppressed the hyperproliferation phenotype; on the other hand, further increased ROS facilitated the survival of ECM-deprived ISCs while reduced ROS exacerbated the loss of ECM-deprived ISCs. However, N- and mys-depleted ISCs, which resembled metastatic tumor cells, harbored even higher ROS levels and were subjected to more severe cell loss, which could be partially prevented by ectopic supply of antioxidant enzymes, implicating a delicate pro-surviving and proliferating range of ROS levels for ISCs. Taken together, our results revealed stem cells can differentially respond to distinct ROS levels under various conditions and suggested that the antioxidant-based intervention of stem cells and tumors should be formulated with caution according to the specific situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Chen
- Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350108, China
| | - Run Su
- Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350108, China
| | - Shiwei Ni
- Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350108, China
| | - Yan Liu
- Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350108, China
| | - Jiexiang Huang
- Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350108, China
| | - Gege Li
- Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350108, China
| | - Qun Wang
- Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350108, China
| | - Xi Zhang
- Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350108, China
| | - Yufeng Yang
- Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350108, China.
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17
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Lama S, Merlin-Zhang O, Yang C. In Vitro and In Vivo Models for Evaluating the Oral Toxicity of Nanomedicines. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 10:E2177. [PMID: 33142878 PMCID: PMC7694082 DOI: 10.3390/nano10112177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Toxicity studies for conventional oral drug formulations are standardized and well documented, as required by the guidelines of administrative agencies such as the US Food & Drug Administration (FDA), the European Medicines Agency (EMA) or European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA), and the Japanese Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA). Researchers tend to extrapolate these standardized protocols to evaluate nanoformulations (NFs) because standard nanotoxicity protocols are still lacking in nonclinical studies for testing orally delivered NFs. However, such strategies have generated many inconsistent results because they do not account for the specific physicochemical properties of nanomedicines. Due to their tiny size, accumulated surface charge and tension, sizeable surface-area-to-volume ratio, and high chemical/structural complexity, orally delivered NFs may generate severe topical toxicities to the gastrointestinal tract and metabolic organs, including the liver and kidney. Such toxicities involve immune responses that reflect different mechanisms than those triggered by conventional formulations. Herein, we briefly analyze the potential oral toxicity mechanisms of NFs and describe recently reported in vitro and in vivo models that attempt to address the specific oral toxicity of nanomedicines. We also discuss approaches that may be used to develop nontoxic NFs for oral drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chunhua Yang
- Center for Diagnostics and Therapeutics, Digestive Disease Research Group, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Petite Science Center, Suite 754, 100 Piedmont Ave SE, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (S.L.); (O.M.-Z.)
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18
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Swanson LC, Rimkus SA, Ganetzky B, Wassarman DA. Loss of the Antimicrobial Peptide Metchnikowin Protects Against Traumatic Brain Injury Outcomes in Drosophila melanogaster. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2020; 10:3109-3119. [PMID: 32631949 PMCID: PMC7466987 DOI: 10.1534/g3.120.401377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a major pathophysiological feature of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Early and persistent activation of innate immune response signaling pathways by primary injuries is associated with secondary cellular injuries that cause TBI outcomes to change over time. We used a Drosophila melanogaster model to investigate the role of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in acute and chronic outcomes of closed-head TBI. AMPs are effectors of pathogen and stress defense mechanisms mediated by the evolutionarily conserved Toll and Immune-deficiency (Imd) innate immune response pathways that activate Nuclear Factor kappa B (NF-κB) transcription factors. Here, we analyzed the effect of null mutations in 10 of the 14 known Drosophila AMP genes on TBI outcomes. We found that mutation of Metchnikowin (Mtk) was unique in protecting flies from mortality within the 24 h following TBI under two diet conditions that produce different levels of mortality. In addition, Mtk mutants had reduced behavioral deficits at 24 h following TBI and increased lifespan either in the absence or presence of TBI. Using a transcriptional reporter of gene expression, we found that TBI increased Mtk expression in the brain. Quantitative analysis of mRNA in whole flies revealed that expression of other AMPs in the Toll and Imd pathways as well as NF-κB transcription factors were not altered in Mtk mutants. Overall, these results demonstrate that Mtk plays an infection-independent role in the fly nervous system, and TBI-induced expression of Mtk in the brain activates acute and chronic secondary injury pathways that are also activated during normal aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura C Swanson
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
- Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Stacey A Rimkus
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Barry Ganetzky
- Department of Genetics, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - David A Wassarman
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
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19
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Papakyrikos AM, Kim MJ, Wang X. Drosophila PTPMT1 Has a Function in Tracheal Air Filling. iScience 2020; 23:101285. [PMID: 32629421 PMCID: PMC7334580 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The fly trachea is the equivalent of the mammalian lung and is a useful model for human respiratory diseases. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying tracheal air filling during larval development. In this study, we discover that PTPMT1 has a function in tracheal air filling. PTPMT1 is a widely conserved, ubiquitously expressed mitochondrial phosphatase. To reveal PTPMT1's functions in genetically tractable invertebrates and whether those functions are tissue specific, we generate a Drosophila model of PTPMT1 depletion. We find that fly PTPMT1 mutants show impairments in tracheal air filling and subsequent activation of innate immune responses. On a cellular level, these defects are preceded by aggregation of mitochondria within the tracheal epithelial cells. Our work demonstrates a cell-type-specific role for PTPMT1 in fly tracheal epithelial cells to support air filling and to prevent immune activation. The establishment of this model will facilitate exploration of PTPMT1's physiological functions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M Papakyrikos
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Graduate Program in Developmental Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Min Joo Kim
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Xinnan Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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20
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Charroux B, Daian F, Royet J. Drosophila Aversive Behavior toward Erwinia carotovora carotovora Is Mediated by Bitter Neurons and Leukokinin. iScience 2020; 23:101152. [PMID: 32450516 PMCID: PMC7251953 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The phytopathogen Erwinia carotovora carotovora (Ecc) has been used successfully to decipher some of the mechanisms that regulate the interactions between Drosophila melanogaster and bacteria, mostly following forced association between the two species. How do Drosophila normally perceive and respond to the presence of Ecc is unknown. Using a fly feeding two-choice assay and video tracking, we show that Drosophila are first attracted but then repulsed by an Ecc-contaminated solution. The initial attractive phase is dependent on the olfactory Gr63a and Gαq proteins, whereas the second repulsive phase requires a functional gustatory system. Genetic manipulations and calcium imaging indicate that bitter neurons and gustatory receptors Gr66a and Gr33a are needed for the aversive phase and that the neuropeptide leukokinin is also involved. We also demonstrate that these behaviors are independent of the NF-κB cascade that controls some of the immune, metabolic, and behavioral responses to bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fabrice Daian
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDM, Marseille, France
| | - Julien Royet
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, IBDM, Marseille, France.
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21
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Samadder S. Drosophila melanogaster: A Robust Tool to Study Candidate Drug against Epidemic and Pandemic Diseases. ANIMAL MODELS IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.90073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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22
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Large-Scale Transgenic Drosophila Resource Collections for Loss- and Gain-of-Function Studies. Genetics 2020; 214:755-767. [PMID: 32071193 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.119.302964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The Transgenic RNAi Project (TRiP), a Drosophila melanogaster functional genomics platform at Harvard Medical School, was initiated in 2008 to generate and distribute a genome-scale collection of RNA interference (RNAi) fly stocks. To date, it has generated >15,000 RNAi fly stocks. As this covers most Drosophila genes, we have largely transitioned to development of new resources based on CRISPR technology. Here, we present an update on our libraries of publicly available RNAi and CRISPR fly stocks, and focus on the TRiP-CRISPR overexpression (TRiP-OE) and TRiP-CRISPR knockout (TRiP-KO) collections. TRiP-OE stocks express single guide RNAs targeting upstream of a gene transcription start site. Gene activation is triggered by coexpression of catalytically dead Cas9 fused to an activator domain, either VP64-p65-Rta or Synergistic Activation Mediator. TRiP-KO stocks express one or two single guide RNAs targeting the coding sequence of a gene or genes. Cutting is triggered by coexpression of Cas9, allowing for generation of indels in both germline and somatic tissue. To date, we have generated >5000 TRiP-OE or TRiP-KO stocks for the community. These resources provide versatile, transformative tools for gene activation, gene repression, and genome engineering.
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23
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Konopová B, Buchberger E, Crisp A. Transcriptome of pleuropodia from locust embryos supports that these organs produce enzymes enabling the larva to hatch. Front Zool 2020; 17:4. [PMID: 31969926 PMCID: PMC6966819 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-019-0349-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Pleuropodia are limb-derived glandular organs that transiently appear on the first abdominal segment in embryos of insects from majority of “orders”. They are missing in the genetic model Drosophila and little is known about them. Experiments carried out on orthopteran insects 80 years ago indicated that the pleuropodia secrete a “hatching enzyme” that digests the serosal cuticle to enable the larva to hatch, but evidence by state-of-the-art molecular methods is missing. Results We used high-throughput RNA-sequencing to identify the genes expressed in the pleuropodia of the locust Schistocerca gregaria (Orthoptera). First, using transmission electron microscopy we studied the development of the pleuropodia during 11 stages of the locust embryogenesis. We show that the glandular cells differentiate and start secreting just before the definitive dorsal closure of the embryo and the secretion granules outside the cells become more abundant prior to hatching. Next, we generated a comprehensive embryonic reference transcriptome for the locust and used it to study genome wide gene expression across ten morphologicaly defined stages of the pleuropodia. We show that when the pleuropodia have morphological markers of functional organs and produce secretion, they are primarily enriched in transcripts associated with transport functions. They express genes encoding enzymes capable of digesting cuticular protein and chitin. These include the potent cuticulo-lytic Chitinase 5, whose transcript rises just before hatching. Unexpected finding was the enrichment in transcripts for immunity-related enzymes. This indicates that the pleuropodia are equipped with epithelial immunity similarly as barrier epithelia in postembryonic stages. Conclusions These data provide transcriptomic support for the historic hypothesis that pleuropodia produce cuticle-degrading enzymes and function in hatching. They may also have other functions, such as facilitation of embryonic immune defense. By the genes that they express the pleuropodia are specialized embryonic organs and apparently an important though neglected part of insect physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Konopová
- 1Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,2Department of Evolutionary Developmental Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.,Institute of Entomology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Elisa Buchberger
- 4Department of Developmental Biology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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Thoo L, Noti M, Krebs P. Keep calm: the intestinal barrier at the interface of peace and war. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:849. [PMID: 31699962 PMCID: PMC6838056 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-2086-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial barriers have to constantly cope with both harmless and harmful stimuli. The epithelial barrier therefore serves as a dynamic and not static wall to safeguard its proper physiological function while ensuring protection. This is achieved through multiple defence mechanisms involving various cell types - epithelial and non-epithelial - that work in an integrated manner to build protective barriers at mucosal sites. Damage may nevertheless occur, due to pathogens, physical insults or dysregulated immune responses, which trigger a physiologic acute or a pathologic chronic inflammatory cascade. Inflammation is often viewed as a pathological condition, particularly due to the increasing prevalence of chronic inflammatory (intestinal) diseases. However, inflammation is also necessary for wound healing. The aetiology of chronic inflammatory diseases is incompletely understood and identification of the underlying mechanisms would reveal additional therapeutic approaches. Resolution is an active host response to end ongoing inflammation but its relevance is under-appreciated. Currently, most therapies aim at dampening inflammation at damaged mucosal sites, yet these approaches do not efficiently shut down the inflammation process nor repair the epithelial barrier. Therefore, future treatment strategies should also promote the resolution phase. Yet, the task of repairing the barrier can be an arduous endeavour considering its multiple integrated layers of defence - which is advantageous for damage prevention but becomes challenging to repair at multiple levels. In this review, using the intestines as a model epithelial organ and barrier paradigm, we describe the consequences of chronic inflammation and highlight the importance of the mucosae to engage resolving processes to restore epithelial barrier integrity and function. We further discuss the contribution of pre-mRNA alternative splicing to barrier integrity and intestinal homeostasis. Following discussions on current open questions and challenges, we propose a model in which resolution of inflammation represents a key mechanism for the restoration of epithelial integrity and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lester Thoo
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Mario Noti
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Department of Gastro-Intestinal Health, Immunology, Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences, Nestlé Research, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Krebs
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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25
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Capo F, Wilson A, Di Cara F. The Intestine of Drosophila melanogaster: An Emerging Versatile Model System to Study Intestinal Epithelial Homeostasis and Host-Microbial Interactions in Humans. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7090336. [PMID: 31505811 PMCID: PMC6780840 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7090336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In all metazoans, the intestinal tract is an essential organ to integrate nutritional signaling, hormonal cues and immunometabolic networks. The dysregulation of intestinal epithelium functions can impact organism physiology and, in humans, leads to devastating and complex diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, intestinal cancers, and obesity. Two decades ago, the discovery of an immune response in the intestine of the genetic model system, Drosophila melanogaster, sparked interest in using this model organism to dissect the mechanisms that govern gut (patho) physiology in humans. In 2007, the finding of the intestinal stem cell lineage, followed by the development of tools available for its manipulation in vivo, helped to elucidate the structural organization and functions of the fly intestine and its similarity with mammalian gastrointestinal systems. To date, studies of the Drosophila gut have already helped to shed light on a broad range of biological questions regarding stem cells and their niches, interorgan communication, immunity and immunometabolism, making the Drosophila a promising model organism for human enteric studies. This review summarizes our current knowledge of the structure and functions of the Drosophila melanogaster intestine, asserting its validity as an emerging model system to study gut physiology, regeneration, immune defenses and host-microbiota interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florence Capo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, IWK Research Centre, Dalhousie University, 5850/5980 University Avenue, Halifax, NS B3K 6R8, Canada.
| | - Alexa Wilson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, IWK Research Centre, Dalhousie University, 5850/5980 University Avenue, Halifax, NS B3K 6R8, Canada.
| | - Francesca Di Cara
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, IWK Research Centre, Dalhousie University, 5850/5980 University Avenue, Halifax, NS B3K 6R8, Canada.
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26
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Abstract
Background Leishmania development in the sand fly gut leads to highly infective forms called metacyclic promastigotes. This process can be routinely mimicked in culture. Gene expression–profiling studies by transcriptome analysis have been performed with the aim of studying promastigote forms in the sand fly gut, as well as differences between sand fly–and culture-derived promastigotes. Findings Transcriptome analysis has revealed the crucial role of the microenvironment in parasite development within the sand fly gut because substantial differences and moderate correlation between the transcriptomes of cultured and sand fly–derived promastigotes have been found. Sand fly–derived metacyclics are more infective than metacyclics in culture. Therefore, some caution should be exercised when using cultured promastigotes, depending on the experimental design. The most remarkable examples are the hydrophilic acidic surface protein/small endoplasmic reticulum protein (HASP/SHERP) cluster, the glycoprotein 63 (gp63), and autophagy genes, which are up-regulated in sand fly–derived promastigotes compared with cultured promastigotes. Because HASP/SHERP genes are up-regulated in nectomonad and metacyclic promastigotes in the sand fly, the encoded proteins are not metacyclic specific. Metacyclic promastigotes are distinguished by morphology and high infectivity. Isolating them from the sand fly gut is not exempt from technical difficulty, because other promastigote forms remain in the gut even 15 days after infection. Leishmania major procyclic promastigotes within the sand fly gut up-regulate genes involved in cell cycle regulation and glucose catabolism, whereas metacyclics increase transcript levels of fatty acid biosynthesis and ATP-coupled proton transport genes. Most parasite's signal transduction pathways remain uncharacterized. Future elucidation may improve understanding of parasite development, particularly signaling molecule-encoding genes in sand fly versus culture and between promastigote forms in the sand fly gut. Conclusions Transcriptome analysis has been demonstrated to be technically efficacious to study differential gene expression in sand fly gut promastigote forms. Transcript and protein levels are not well correlated in these organisms (approximately 25% quantitative coincidences), especially under stress situations and at differentiation processes. However, transcript and protein levels behave similarly in approximately 60% of cases from a qualitative point of view (increase, decrease, or no variation). Changes in translational efficiency observed in other trypanosomatids strongly suggest that the differences are due to translational regulation and regulation of the steady-state protein levels. The lack of low-input sample strategies does not allow translatome and proteome analysis of sand fly–derived promastigotes so far.
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Chen AS, Read RD. Drosophila melanogaster as a Model System for Human Glioblastomas. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1167:207-224. [PMID: 31520357 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-23629-8_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common primary malignant adult brain tumor. Genomic amplifications, activating mutations, and overexpression of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) such as EGFR, and genes in core RTK signaling transduction pathways such as PI3K are common in GBM. However, efforts to target these pathways have been largely unsuccessful in the clinic, and the median survival of GBM patients remains poor at 14-15 months. Therefore, to improve patient outcomes, there must be a concerted effort to elucidate the underlying biology involved in GBM tumorigenesis. Drosophila melanogaster has been a highly effective model for furthering our understanding of GBM tumorigenesis due to a number of experimental advantages it has over traditional mouse models. For example, there exists extensive cellular and genetic homology between humans and Drosophila, and 75% of genes associated with human disease have functional fly orthologs. To take advantage of these traits, we developed a Drosophila GBM model with constitutively active variants of EGFR and PI3K that effectively recapitulated key aspects of GBM disease. Researchers have utilized this model in forward genetic screens and have expanded on its functionality to make a number of important discoveries regarding requirements for key components in GBM tumorigenesis, including genes and pathways involved in extracellular matrix signaling, glycolytic metabolism, invasion/migration, stem cell fate and differentiation, and asymmetric cell division. Drosophila will continue to reveal novel biological pathways and mechanisms involved in gliomagenesis, and this knowledge may contribute to the development of effective treatment strategies to improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander S Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Renee D Read
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,Winship Cancer Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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28
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Siva-Jothy JA, Prakash A, Vasanthakrishnan RB, Monteith KM, Vale PF. Oral Bacterial Infection and Shedding in Drosophila melanogaster. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 29912178 PMCID: PMC6101445 DOI: 10.3791/57676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the best developed model systems of infection and innate immunity. While most work has focused on systemic infections, there has been a recent increase of interest in the mechanisms of gut immunocompetence to pathogens, which require methods to orally infect flies. Here we present a protocol to orally expose individual flies to an opportunistic bacterial pathogen (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and a natural bacterial pathogen of D. melanogaster (Pseudomonas entomophila). The goal of this protocol is to provide a robust method to expose male and female flies to these pathogens. We provide representative results showing survival phenotypes, microbe loads, and bacterial shedding, which is relevant for the study of heterogeneity in pathogen transmission. Finally, we confirm that Dcy mutants (lacking the protective peritrophic matrix in the gut epithelium) and Relish mutants (lacking a functional immune deficiency (IMD) pathway), show increased susceptibility to bacterial oral infection. This protocol, therefore, describes a robust method to infect flies using the oral route of infection, which can be extended to the study of a variety genetic and environmental sources of variation in gut infection outcomes and bacterial transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathon A Siva-Jothy
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh
| | - Arun Prakash
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh
| | | | - Katy M Monteith
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh
| | - Pedro F Vale
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh; Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh;
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Tang X, Zhao Y, Buchon N, Engström Y. The POU/Oct Transcription Factor Nubbin Controls the Balance of Intestinal Stem Cell Maintenance and Differentiation by Isoform-Specific Regulation. Stem Cell Reports 2018; 10:1565-1578. [PMID: 29681543 PMCID: PMC5995344 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2018.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Drosophila POU/Oct transcription factors are required for many developmental processes, but their putative regulation of adult stem cell activity has not been investigated. Here, we show that Nubbin (Nub)/Pdm1, homologous to mammalian OCT1/POU2F1 and related to OCT4/POU5F1, is expressed in gut epithelium progenitor cells. We demonstrate that the nub-encoded protein isoforms, Nub-PB and Nub-PD, play opposite roles in the regulation of intestinal stem cell (ISC) maintenance and differentiation. Depletion of Nub-PB in progenitor cells increased ISC proliferation by derepression of escargot expression. Conversely, loss of Nub-PD reduced ISC proliferation, suggesting that this isoform is necessary for ISC maintenance, analogous to mammalian OCT4/POU5F1 functions. Furthermore, Nub-PB is required in enteroblasts to promote differentiation, and it acts as a tumor suppressor of Notch RNAi-driven hyperplasia. We suggest that a dynamic and well-tuned expression of Nub isoforms in progenitor cells is required for maintaining gut epithelium homeostasis. Drosophila nubbin (nub) is expressed in adult midgut progenitor cells The Nub-PB isoform drives differentiation and acts as a tumor suppressor The Nub-PD isoform maintains intestinal stem cell proliferation Nub-PD and Nub-PB regulate stem cell proliferation antagonistically
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiongzhuo Tang
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm 10691, Sweden
| | - Yunpo Zhao
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm 10691, Sweden
| | - Nicolas Buchon
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ylva Engström
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm 10691, Sweden.
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30
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The impact of genome variation and diet on the metabolic phenotype and microbiome composition of Drosophila melanogaster. Sci Rep 2018; 8:6215. [PMID: 29670218 PMCID: PMC5906449 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-24542-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The metabolic phenotype of an organism depends on a complex regulatory network, which integrates the plethora of intrinsic and external information and prioritizes the flow of nutrients accordingly. Given the rise of metabolic disorders including obesity, a detailed understanding of this regulatory network is in urgent need. Yet, our level of understanding is far from completeness and complicated by the discovery of additional layers in metabolic regulation, such as the impact of the microbial community present in the gut on the hosts’ energy storage levels. Here, we investigate the interplay between genome variation, diet and the gut microbiome in the shaping of a metabolic phenotype. For this purpose, we reared a set of fully sequenced wild type Drosophila melanogaster flies under basal and nutritionally challenged conditions and performed metabolic and microbiome profiling experiments. Our results introduce the fly as a model system to investigate the impact of genome variation on the metabolic response to diet alterations and reveal candidate single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with different metabolic traits, as well as metabolite-metabolite and metabolite-microbe correlations. Intriguingly, the dietary changes affected the microbiome composition less than anticipated. These results challenge the current view of a rapidly changing microbiome in response to environmental fluctuations.
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31
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Lindberg BG, Tang X, Dantoft W, Gohel P, Seyedoleslami Esfahani S, Lindvall JM, Engström Y. Nubbin isoform antagonism governs Drosophila intestinal immune homeostasis. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1006936. [PMID: 29499056 PMCID: PMC5851638 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Gut immunity is regulated by intricate and dynamic mechanisms to ensure homeostasis despite a constantly changing microbial environment. Several regulatory factors have been described to participate in feedback responses to prevent aberrant immune activity. Little is, however, known about how transcriptional programs are directly tuned to efficiently adapt host gut tissues to the current microbiome. Here we show that the POU/Oct gene nubbin (nub) encodes two transcription factor isoforms, Nub-PB and Nub-PD, which antagonistically regulate immune gene expression in Drosophila. Global transcriptional profiling of adult flies overexpressing Nub-PB in immunocompetent tissues revealed that this form is a strong transcriptional activator of a large set of immune genes. Further genetic analyses showed that Nub-PB is sufficient to drive expression both independently and in conjunction with nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), JNK and JAK/STAT pathways. Similar overexpression of Nub-PD did, conversely, repress expression of the same targets. Strikingly, isoform co-overexpression normalized immune gene transcription, suggesting antagonistic activities. RNAi-mediated knockdown of individual nub transcripts in enterocytes confirmed antagonistic regulation by the two isoforms and that both are necessary for normal immune gene transcription in the midgut. Furthermore, enterocyte-specific Nub-PB expression levels had a strong impact on gut bacterial load as well as host lifespan. Overexpression of Nub-PB enhanced bacterial clearance of ingested Erwinia carotovora carotovora 15. Nevertheless, flies quickly succumbed to the infection, suggesting a deleterious immune response. In line with this, prolonged overexpression promoted a proinflammatory signature in the gut with induction of JNK and JAK/STAT pathways, increased apoptosis and stem cell proliferation. These findings highlight a novel regulatory mechanism of host-microbe interactions mediated by antagonistic transcription factor isoforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo G. Lindberg
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Xiongzhuo Tang
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Widad Dantoft
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Priya Gohel
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Jessica M. Lindvall
- National Bioinformatics Infrastructure Sweden (NBIS), Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ylva Engström
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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32
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Mondotte JA, Saleh MC. Antiviral Immune Response and the Route of Infection in Drosophila melanogaster. Adv Virus Res 2017; 100:247-278. [PMID: 29551139 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2017.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The use of Drosophila as a model organism has made an important contribution to our understanding of the function and regulation of innate immunity in insects. Indeed, insects can discriminate between different types of pathogens and mount specific and effective responses. Strikingly, the same pathogen can trigger a different immune response in the same organism, depending solely on the route of infection by which the pathogen is delivered. In this review, we recapitulate what is known about antiviral responses in Drosophila, and how they are triggered depending on the route and the mode used for the virus to infect its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan A Mondotte
- Institut Pasteur, Viruses and RNA Interference Unit, CNRS Unité Mixte de Recherche 3569, Paris, France
| | - Maria-Carla Saleh
- Institut Pasteur, Viruses and RNA Interference Unit, CNRS Unité Mixte de Recherche 3569, Paris, France.
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33
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Borman AM. Of mice and men and larvae: Galleria mellonella to model the early host-pathogen interactions after fungal infection. Virulence 2017; 9:9-12. [PMID: 28933671 PMCID: PMC5955190 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2017.1382799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Borman
- a UK National Mycology Reference Laboratory (MRL) , Public Health England South-West , Bristol , UK
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34
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Sterkel M, Oliveira JHM, Bottino-Rojas V, Paiva-Silva GO, Oliveira PL. The Dose Makes the Poison: Nutritional Overload Determines the Life Traits of Blood-Feeding Arthropods. Trends Parasitol 2017; 33:633-644. [PMID: 28549573 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2017.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Vertebrate blood composition is heavily biased towards proteins, and hemoglobin, which is a hemeprotein, is by far the most abundant protein. Typically, hematophagous insects ingest blood volumes several times their weight before the blood meal. This barbarian feast offers an abundance of nutrients, but the degradation of blood proteins generates toxic concentrations of amino acids and heme, along with unparalleled microbiota growth. Despite this challenge, hematophagous arthropods have successfully developed mechanisms that bypass the toxicity of these molecules. While these adaptations allow hematophagous arthropods to tolerate their diet, they also constitute a unique mode of operation for cell signaling, immunity, and metabolism, the study of which may offer insights into the biology of disease vectors and may lead to novel vector-specific control methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Sterkel
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - José Henrique M Oliveira
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Bottino-Rojas
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Gabriela O Paiva-Silva
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Brazil
| | - Pedro L Oliveira
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Brazil.
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