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Skarysz A, Salman D, Eddleston M, Sykora M, Hunsicker E, Nailon WH, Darnley K, McLaren DB, Thomas CLP, Soltoggio A. Fast and automated biomarker detection in breath samples with machine learning. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265399. [PMID: 35413057 PMCID: PMC9004778 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in human breath can reveal a large spectrum of health conditions and can be used for fast, accurate and non-invasive diagnostics. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is used to measure VOCs, but its application is limited by expert-driven data analysis that is time-consuming, subjective and may introduce errors. We propose a machine learning-based system to perform GC-MS data analysis that exploits deep learning pattern recognition ability to learn and automatically detect VOCs directly from raw data, thus bypassing expert-led processing. We evaluate this new approach on clinical samples and with four types of convolutional neural networks (CNNs): VGG16, VGG-like, densely connected and residual CNNs. The proposed machine learning methods showed to outperform the expert-led analysis by detecting a significantly higher number of VOCs in just a fraction of time while maintaining high specificity. These results suggest that the proposed novel approach can help the large-scale deployment of breath-based diagnosis by reducing time and cost, and increasing accuracy and consistency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika Skarysz
- Computer Science Department, School of Science, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (AS); (AS)
| | - Dahlia Salman
- Centre for Analytical Science, School of Science, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Eddleston
- Pharmacology, Toxicology & Therapeutics Unit, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Sykora
- Centre for Information Management, School of Business and Economics, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Eugénie Hunsicker
- Mathematical Sciences Department, School of Science, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | | | - Kareen Darnley
- Clinical Research Facility, Western General Hospital, NHS Lothian, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | | | - C. L. Paul Thomas
- Centre for Analytical Science, School of Science, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Soltoggio
- Computer Science Department, School of Science, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (AS); (AS)
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Koopman J, Grimme S. From QCEIMS to QCxMS: A Tool to Routinely Calculate CID Mass Spectra Using Molecular Dynamics. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2021; 32:1735-1751. [PMID: 34080847 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.1c00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful tool in chemical research and substance identification. For the computational modeling of electron ionization MS, we have developed the quantum-chemical electron ionization mass spectra (QCEIMS) program. Here, we present an extension of QCEIMS to calculate collision-induced dissociation (CID) spectra. The more general applicability is accounted for by the new name QCxMS, where "x" refers to EI or CID. To this end, fragmentation and rearrangement reactions are computed "on-the-fly" in Born-Oppenheimer molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with the semiempirical GFN2-xTB Hamiltonian, which provides an efficient quantum mechanical description of all elements up to Z = 86 (Rn). Through the explicit modeling of multicollision processes between precursor ions and neutral gas atoms as well as temperature-induced decomposition reactions, QCxMS provides detailed insight into the collision kinetics and fragmentation pathways. In combination with the CREST program to determine the preferential protonation sites, QCxMS becomes the first standalone MD-based program that can predict mass spectra based solely on molecular structures as input. We demonstrate this for six organic molecules with masses ranging from 159 to 296 Da, for which QCxMS yields CID spectra in reasonable agreement with experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen Koopman
- Mulliken Center for Theoretical Chemistry, Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, Beringstr. 4, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Stefan Grimme
- Mulliken Center for Theoretical Chemistry, Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, Beringstr. 4, 53115 Bonn, Germany
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Jaafar Z, Wan Hamat NH. Doping in sports among Malaysian universities athlete: survey of the knowledge, beliefs, and perception during Malaysian universities games in Kuala Lumpur 2014. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2020; 60:794-799. [PMID: 32037780 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.20.09623-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Doping in young athletes at present is on escalation. A few doping cases involving athletes from South East Asia (SEA) countries have been reported. The objective of this study is to determine current perceived doping and antidoping climate in Malaysia through an exploration of doping-related knowledge, perception and beliefs among the university athletes. METHODS A survey was conducted during the Malaysian Universities Games in Kuala Lumpur 2014. A total of 614 athletes completed the questionnaires on perception, specific knowledge, environment, behavior and beliefs towards doping. RESULTS From this survey, we found that their knowledge about doping and antidoping was poor, they have misguided beliefs and perception about doping, and their environment seems to be favorable for performance enhancing substances usage in the future. We grouped the athletes based on their doping's environment into ultraclean, potential and high-risk group; and the results showed that they have a significant relationship with their knowledge, beliefs and perception about doping in sports, P<0.001. About 1.5-1.8% of the studied athletes have positive behavior towards doping practice; doping use, χ2 =24.6(2) P<0.001 and doping willingness, χ2 =17.15(2) P<0.001. CONCLUSIONS Doping behavior and doping risks in this region are still under-studied. Hence, we recommended that every South East Asia countries would identify the potential risks of doping among their young athletes, and collectively collaborating in managing doping issues involving this region. Special attention should be given to doping environment as it has negative influences on athletes behavior towards doping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zulkarnain Jaafar
- Department of Sports Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia -
| | - Nik H Wan Hamat
- Department of Sports Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Georgakopoulos C. Detecting – the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. Drug Test Anal 2019; 12:641-646. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Koopman J, Grimme S. Calculation of Electron Ionization Mass Spectra with Semiempirical GFNn-xTB Methods. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:15120-15133. [PMID: 31552357 PMCID: PMC6751715 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b02011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we have tested two different extended tight-binding methods in the framework of the quantum chemistry electron ionization mass spectrometry (QCEIMS) program to calculate electron ionization mass spectra. The QCEIMS approach provides reasonable, first-principles computed spectra, which can be directly compared to experiment. Furthermore, it provides detailed insight into the reaction mechanisms of mass spectrometry experiments. It sheds light upon the complicated fragmentation procedures of bond breakage and structural rearrangements that are difficult to derive otherwise. The required accuracy and computational demands for successful reproduction of a mass spectrum in relation to the underlying quantum chemical method are discussed. To validate the new GFN2-xTB approach, we conduct simulations for 15 organic, transition-metal, and main-group inorganic systems. Major fragmentation patterns are analyzed, and the entire calculated spectra are directly compared to experimental data taken from the literature. We discuss the computational costs and the robustness (outliers) of several calculation protocols presented. Overall, the new, theoretically more sophisticated semiempirical method GFN2-xTB performs well and robustly for a wide range of organic, inorganic, and organometallic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen Koopman
- Mulliken Center for Theoretical
Chemistry, Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, Beringstr. 4, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Stefan Grimme
- Mulliken Center for Theoretical
Chemistry, Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, University of Bonn, Beringstr. 4, 53115 Bonn, Germany
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Lepowsky E, Ghaderinezhad F, Knowlton S, Tasoglu S. Paper-based assays for urine analysis. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2017; 11:051501. [PMID: 29104709 PMCID: PMC5645195 DOI: 10.1063/1.4996768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/29/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
A transformation of the healthcare industry is necessary and imminent: hospital-centered, reactive care will soon give way to proactive, person-centered care which focuses on individuals' well-being. However, this transition will only be made possible through scientific innovation. Next-generation technologies will be the key to developing affordable and accessible care, while also lowering the costs of healthcare. A promising solution to this challenge is low-cost continuous health monitoring; this approach allows for effective screening, analysis, and diagnosis and facilitates proactive medical intervention. Urine has great promise for being a key resource for health monitoring; unlike blood, it can be collected effortlessly on a daily basis without pain or the need for special equipment. Unfortunately, the commercial rapid urine analysis tests that exist today can only go so far-this is where the promise of microfluidic devices lies. Microfluidic devices have a proven record of being effective analytical devices, capable of controlling the flow of fluid samples, containing reaction and detection zones, and displaying results, all within a compact footprint. Moving past traditional glass- and polymer-based microfluidics, paper-based microfluidic devices possess the same diagnostic ability, with the added benefits of facile manufacturing, low-cost implementation, and disposability. Hence, we review the recent progress in the application of paper-based microfluidics to urine analysis as a solution to providing continuous health monitoring for proactive care. First, we present important considerations for point-of-care diagnostic devices. We then discuss what urine is and how paper functions as the substrate for urine analysis. Next, we cover the current commercial rapid tests that exist and thereby demonstrate where paper-based microfluidic urine analysis devices may fit into the commercial market in the future. Afterward, we discuss various fabrication techniques that have been recently developed for paper-based microfluidic devices. Transitioning from fabrication to implementation, we present some of the clinically implemented urine assays and their importance in healthcare and clinical diagnosis, with a focus on paper-based microfluidic assays. We then conclude by providing an overview of select biomarker research tailored towards urine diagnostics. This review will demonstrate the applicability of paper-based assays for urine analysis and where they may fit into the commercial healthcare market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Lepowsky
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, USA
| | - Fariba Ghaderinezhad
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, USA
| | - Stephanie Knowlton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06269, USA
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Schönfelder M, Hofmann H, Schulz T, Engl T, Kemper D, Mayr B, Rautenberg C, Oberhoffer R, Thieme D. Potential detection of low-dose transdermal testosterone administration in blood, urine, and saliva. Drug Test Anal 2016; 8:1186-1196. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Schönfelder
- Chair of Exercise Biology; Technical University of Munich; Germany
- Institute of Pathology; Technical University of Munich; Germany
| | - H. Hofmann
- Chair of Preventive Pediatrics; Technical University of Munich; Germany
| | - T. Schulz
- Chair of Preventive Pediatrics; Technical University of Munich; Germany
| | - T. Engl
- Chair of Preventive Pediatrics; Technical University of Munich; Germany
| | - D. Kemper
- Chair of Preventive Pediatrics; Technical University of Munich; Germany
| | - B. Mayr
- Research Institute of Molecular Sports and Rehabilitation Medicine; Paracelus Medical Private University; Salzburg Austria
| | - C. Rautenberg
- Institute of Doping Analysis und Sports Biochemistry Dresden; Kreischa Germany
| | - R. Oberhoffer
- Chair of Preventive Pediatrics; Technical University of Munich; Germany
| | - D. Thieme
- Institute of Doping Analysis und Sports Biochemistry Dresden; Kreischa Germany
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8
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Doping control container for urine stabilization: a pilot study. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:699-712. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Stevenson BJ, Waller CC, Ma P, Li K, Cawley AT, Ollis DL, McLeod MD. Pseudomonas aeruginosaarylsulfatase: a purified enzyme for the mild hydrolysis of steroid sulfates. Drug Test Anal 2015; 7:903-11. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Revised: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bradley J. Stevenson
- Research School of Chemistry; Australian National University; Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Christopher C. Waller
- Research School of Chemistry; Australian National University; Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Paul Ma
- Research School of Chemistry; Australian National University; Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Kunkun Li
- Research School of Chemistry; Australian National University; Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Adam T. Cawley
- Racing New South Wales - Australian Racing Forensic Laboratory; Sydney NSW 1465 Australia
| | - David L. Ollis
- Research School of Chemistry; Australian National University; Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Malcolm D. McLeod
- Research School of Chemistry; Australian National University; Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
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Ma P, Kanizaj N, Chan SA, Ollis DL, McLeod MD. The Escherichia coli glucuronylsynthase promoted synthesis of steroid glucuronides: improved practicality and broader scope. Org Biomol Chem 2014; 12:6208-14. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ob00984c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Steroid glucuronides can be quickly and conveniently prepared on the milligram scale using theE. coliglucuronylsynthase enzyme followed by purification with solid-phase extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Ma
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
| | - Nicholas Kanizaj
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
| | - Shu-Ann Chan
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
| | - David L. Ollis
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
| | - Malcolm D. McLeod
- Research School of Chemistry
- Australian National University
- Canberra, Australia
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Kioukia-Fougia N, Fragkaki A, Kiousi P, Leontiou IP, Dimopoulou H, Tsivou M, Lyris E, Georgakopoulos C. A synopsis of the adverse analytical and atypical findings between 2005 and 2011 from the Doping Control Laboratory of Athens in Greece. J Anal Toxicol 2013; 38:16-23. [PMID: 24194481 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkt089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This article concerns the analysis of the Adverse Analytical Findings (AAFs) and the appropriate alterations made during the period 2005-2011, so that the Doping Control Laboratory of Athens (DCLA) obeys the updated World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) List of Prohibited Substances. The % AAFs of the DCLA was compared with those of WADA-Accredited Laboratories. In 2008, the term Atypical Finding was introduced by the WADA representing a reported but inconclusive result. A characteristic example is when a testosterone-to-epitestosterone ratio is >4 followed by a negative gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry result. In a total of about 30,000 athlete samples, 136 athletes were found with an increased testosterone/epitestosterone ratio and 43 with tetrahydrocannabinol metabolite (THCCOOH) of 427 reported AAFs. Twenty-one athletes in total were found positive with methylhexaneamine, the 11 found after a batch of 1000 samples was reprocessed. Besides, there were AAFs below their Minimum Required Performance Level (MRPL). The increasing need for higher detectability imposed new apparatus, e.g., liquid chromatography/quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometry, whereas that for lowering the capital costs and reporting times led to the unification of the screening method which includes stimulants, diuretics, anabolics and other substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nassia Kioukia-Fougia
- 1Doping Control Laboratory of Athens, Olympic Athletic Center of Athens 'Spiros Louis', 37 Kifissias Ave., Maroussi 151 23, Greece
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12
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Analytical progresses of the International Olympic Committee and World Anti-Doping Agency Olympic laboratories. Bioanalysis 2012; 4:1549-63. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.12.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The Summer Olympic Games constitute the biggest concentration of human sports and activities in a particular place and time since 776 BCE, when the written history of the Olympic Games in Olympia began. Summer and Winter Olympic anti-doping laboratories, accredited by the International Olympic Committee in the past and the World Anti-Doping Agency in the present times, acquire worldwide interest to apply all new analytical advancements in the fight against doping in sports, hoping that this major human event will not become dirty by association with this negative phenomenon. This article summarizes the new analytical progresses, technologies and knowledge used by the Olympic laboratories, which for the vast majority of them are, eventually, incorporated into routine anti-doping analysis.
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Sensitive and robust method for anabolic agents in human urine by gas chromatography–triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2012; 897:85-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2012.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2012] [Revised: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 03/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Two-step derivatization procedures for the ionization enhancement of anabolic steroids in LC–ESI-MS for doping control analysis. Bioanalysis 2012; 4:167-75. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.11.308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Two-step derivatization procedures were developed for the enhancement of the positive ESI in LC–MS detection of anabolic androgenic steroids, a class of prohibited substances with limited ionization efficiency in atmospheric pressure interfaces. The developed procedures are based on the esterification of hydroxyl groups of anabolic steroids with picolinic acid, followed by conversion of carbonyl groups to Schiff bases by either Girard’s reagent T or 2-hydrazino pyridin. Results: Ionization efficiency for the model derivatized compounds 19-norandrosterone (nandrolone main metabolite) and methasterone was higher by almost two orders of magnitude compared with the respective efficiency of the underivatized compounds. Conclusion: The obtained derivatives provided a significant improvement in the ESI sensitivity, compared with those of underivatized molecules in positive LC–ESI-ion trap-MS full-scan mode.
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Lin CC, Tseng CC, Chuang TK, Lee DS, Lee GB. Urine analysis in microfluidic devices. Analyst 2011; 136:2669-88. [PMID: 21617803 DOI: 10.1039/c1an15029d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Microfluidics has attracted considerable attention since its early development in the 1980s and has experienced rapid growth in the past three decades due to advantages associated with miniaturization, integration and automation. Urine analysis is a common, fast and inexpensive clinical diagnostic tool in health care. In this article, we will be reviewing recent works starting from 2005 to the present for urine analysis using microfluidic devices or systems and to provide in-depth commentary about these techniques. Moreover, commercial strips that are often treated as chips and their readers for urine analysis will also be briefly discussed. We start with an introduction to the physiological significance of various components or measurement standards in urine analysis, followed by a brief introduction to enabling microfluidic technologies. Then, microfluidic devices or systems for sample pretreatments and for sensing urinary macromolecules, micromolecules, as well as multiplexed analysis are reviewed, in this sequence. Moreover, a microfluidic chip for urinary proteome profiling is also discussed, followed by a section discussing commercial products. Finally, the authors' perspectives on microfluidic-based urine analysis are provided. These advancements in microfluidic techniques for urine analysis may improve current routine clinical practices, particularly for point-of-care (POC) applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Che Lin
- Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
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Abstract
The issue of doping control in sport involves the development of reliable analytical procedures and efficient strategies to process a large number of samples in a short period of time. Reversed-phase LC techniques with aqueous-organic mobile phases and MS or diode-array detection yield satisfactory results for the identification of prohibited substances in sport. However, time-consuming sample pretreatment steps are required, which reduces sample throughput. Micellar LC (MLC) that uses hybrid mobile phases of surfactant above its critical micellar concentration and organic solvent has been revealed as an interesting alternative. The surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate solubilizes the protein components of urine, serum and plasma, which permits their direct injection into the chromatographic system. Only dilution and filtering of the samples may be required. Most MLC analyses are performed in isocratic mode, with short retention times and good selectivity. The sensitivity of MLC allows the detection of a variety of doping substances at least 24-48 h after being administered.
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Vonaparti A, Lyris E, Angelis YS, Panderi I, Koupparis M, Tsantili-Kakoulidou A, Peters RJB, Nielen MWF, Georgakopoulos C. Preventive doping control screening analysis of prohibited substances in human urine using rapid-resolution liquid chromatography/high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2010; 24:1595-1609. [PMID: 20486255 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Unification of the screening protocols for a wide range of doping agents has become an important issue for doping control laboratories. This study presents the development and validation of a generic liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/TOFMS) screening method of 241 small molecule analytes from various categories of prohibited substances (stimulants, narcotics, diuretics, beta(2)-agonists, beta-blockers, hormone antagonists and modulators, glucocorticosteroids and anabolic agents). It is based on a single-step liquid-liquid extraction of hydrolyzed urine and the use of a rapid-resolution liquid chromatography/high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometric system acquiring continuous full scan data. Electrospray ionization in the positive mode was used. Validation parameters consisted of identification capability, limit of detection, specificity, ion suppression, extraction recovery, repeatability and mass accuracy. Detection criteria were established on the basis of retention time reproducibility and mass accuracy. The suitability of the methodology for doping control was demonstrated with positive urine samples. The preventive role of the method was proved by the case where full scan acquisition with accurate mass measurement allowed the retrospective reprocessing of acquired data from past doping control samples for the detection of a designer drug, the stimulant 4-methyl-2-hexanamine, which resulted in re-reporting a number of stored samples as positives for this particular substance, when, initially, they had been reported as negatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Vonaparti
- Doping Control Laboratory of Athens, Olympic Athletic Center of Athens 'Spiros Louis', 37 Kifissias Ave., 151 23 Maroussi, Greece
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Brun EM, Torres A, Ventura R, Puchades R, Maquieira A. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for doping control of 5alpha-reductase inhibitors finasteride and dutasteride. Anal Chim Acta 2010; 671:70-9. [PMID: 20541645 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2010.04.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2010] [Revised: 04/28/2010] [Accepted: 04/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Finasteride and dutasteride are 5alpha-reductase inhibitors included in the World Anti-Doping Agency's list of banned substances. Two highly sensitive and selective ELISA assays were developed for these compounds. Polyclonal rabbit antibodies were raised using synthesized haptens and other commercial products. The best immunoassay obtained, based on an antibody-coated format, showed a limit of detection of 0.01 microg L(-1) and an IC(50) of 0.75 microg L(-1) for finasteride (cross-reactivity with dutasteride<4%). The second assay allowed finasteride and dutasteride determination, with limits of detection of 0.013 and 0.021 microg L(-1), and IC(50) values 0.18 and 1.18 microg L(-1), respectively. Both assays were highly selective to a set of anabolic steroids, but they showed 37% and 30% cross-reactivity with the major urinary metabolite of finasteride, allowing its determination. The developed ELISA had better sensitivity than HPLC/MS/MS method and was applied as a screening technique to quantify dutasteride, finasteride, and its main metabolite in human urine without sample pre-treatment. Moreover, the analysis of dutasteride's excretion urines by ELISA was used to obtain its human excretion rate, essential to improve the analytical strategies about this type of drugs (permitted as medicines and prohibited in sport) and to establish an effective anti-doping policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva M Brun
- Departamento de Química, Instituto de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46071 Valencia, Spain
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Prasad K, Das AK, Oza MD, Brahmbhatt H, Siddhanta AK, Meena R, Eswaran K, Rajyaguru MR, Ghosh PK. Detection and quantification of some plant growth regulators in a seaweed-based foliar spray employing a mass spectrometric technique sans chromatographic separation. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:4594-4601. [PMID: 20355716 DOI: 10.1021/jf904500e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The sap expelled from the fresh harvest of Kappaphycus alvarezii , a red seaweed growing in tropical waters, has been reported to be a potent foliar spray. Tandem mass spectrometry of various organic extracts of the sap confirmed the presence of the plant growth regulators (PGRs) indole 3-acetic acid, gibberellin GA(3), kinetin, and zeatin. These PGRs were quantified in fresh state and after 1 year of storage by ESI-MS without recourse to chromatographic separation. Quantification was validated against HPLC data. The results may be useful in correlating with the efficacy of the sap. The methodology was extended to two other seaweeds. The method developed is convenient and precise and may find application in other agricultural formulations containing these growth hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamalesh Prasad
- Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), G. B. Marg, Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India.
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Choi K, Kim J, Jang YO, Chung DS. Direct chiral analysis of primary amine drugs in human urine by single drop microextraction in-line coupled to CE. Electrophoresis 2010; 30:2905-11. [PMID: 19691052 DOI: 10.1002/elps.200800829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Three-phase single drop microextraction (SDME) was in-line coupled to chiral CE of weakly basic amine compounds including amphetamine. SDME was used for the matrix isolation and sample preconcentration in order to directly analyze urine samples with the minimal pretreatment of adding NaOH. A small drop of an acidic aqueous acceptor phase covered with a thin layer of octanol was formed at the tip of a capillary by simple manipulation of the liquid handling functions of a commercial CE instrument. While the saline matrix of the urine sample was blocked by the octanol layer, the basic analytes in a basic aqueous donor phase were concentrated into the acidic acceptor drop through the octanol layer by the driving force of the pH difference between the two aqueous phases. The enantiomers of the enriched amines were resolved by using (+)-(18-crown-6)-tetracarboxylic acid as a chiral selector for the subsequent CE separation. From 10 min SDME with the agitation of the donor phase by a small stirrer retrofit to the CE instrument, enrichment factors were about a 1000-fold, yielding the LOD of 0.5 ng/mL for amphetamine. This low LOD value as well as the convenience of in-line coupled SDME make the proposed scheme well suited for the demanding chiral analysis of amphetamine-type stimulants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kihwan Choi
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
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Scalco FB, Simoni RE, Oliveira MLCD, Gomes LNL, Neto FRA. Screening for hydroxyethyl starch (HES) doping in sport. J Sci Med Sport 2010; 13:13-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2008.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2008] [Revised: 06/19/2008] [Accepted: 06/27/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Two-step silylation procedure for the unified analysis of 190 doping control substances in human urine samples by GC–MS. Bioanalysis 2009; 1:1209-24. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.09.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: While a number of different derivatization procedures for screening GC–MS analysis of prohibited substances are followed by doping control laboratories, a unified derivatization procedure for the GC–MS analysis of 190 different doping agents was developed. Results: Following preliminary experiments, a two-step derivatization procedure was selected. The evaluation of various silylation parameters, such as reagent composition, reaction time, reaction temperature, catalysts and microwave oven reaction time, for this procedure was carried out. Conclusion: The suitability of the developed procedure was demonstrated through application on urine samples at concentration levels of the minimum required performance limit for all tested substances. This new derivatization procedure, which significantly decreases time and cost, is suitable for a routine basis application.
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Gomes RL, Meredith W, Snape CE, Sephton MA. Analysis of conjugated steroid androgens: deconjugation, derivatisation and associated issues. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2009; 49:1133-40. [PMID: 19304432 PMCID: PMC2684592 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2009.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2008] [Revised: 12/31/2008] [Accepted: 01/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is the preferred technique for the detection of urinary steroid androgens for drug testing in athletics. Excreted in either the glucuronide or sulfated conjugated form, steroids must first undergo deconjugation followed by derivatisation to render them suitable for GC analysis. Discussed herein are the deconjugation and the derivatisation preparative options. The analytical challenges surrounding these preparatory approaches, in particular the inability to cleave the sulfate moiety have led to a focus on testing protocols that reply on glucuronide conjugates. Other approaches which alleviate the need for deconjugation and derivatisation are also highlighted.
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Key Words
- 13c/12c, stable carbon isotope ratio
- aps, adenosine-5′-phosphate
- atp, adenosine triphosphate
- bstfa, n,o-bis(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide
- dhea, dehydroepiandrosterone
- es, external standard
- fid, flame ionisation detector
- fu, fishman unit
- g, glucuronide
- gc/c/irms, gas chromatography/combustion/isotopic ratio mass spectrometry
- gc/ms, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
- is, internal standard
- iu, international unit
- lc/ms, liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry
- l–l, liquid–liquid
- mstfa, n-methyl-n-(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide
- paps, 3′,5′-phosphoadenosine
- p-pi, pyrophosphate
- s, sulfate
- spe, solid phase extraction
- t/e ratio, testosterone to epitestosterone ratio
- tmcs, trimethylchlorosilane
- tmis, trimethyliodosilane
- tms, trimethylsilyating
- u, unit
- udpga, uridine diphosphoglucuronic acid
- ru, roy unit
- wada, world anti-doping agency
- conjugated steroids
- biological samples
- forensic drug testing
- deconjugation
- derivatisation
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel L Gomes
- Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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Calderone G, Serra F, Lees M, Mosandl A, Reniero F, Guillou C, Moreno-Rojas JM. Inter-laboratory comparison of elemental analysis and gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry. II. Delta15N measurements of selected compounds for the development of an isotopic Grob test. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2009; 23:963-970. [PMID: 19241455 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
An inter-laboratory exercise was carried out by a consortium of five European laboratories to establish a set of compounds, suitable for calibrating gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS) devices, to be used as isotopic reference materials for hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen stable isotope measurements. The set of compounds was chosen with the aim of developing a mixture of reference materials to be used in analytical protocols to check for food and beverage authentication. The exercise was organized in several steps to achieve the certification level: the first step consisted of the a priori selection of chemical compounds on the basis of the scientific literature and successive GC tests to set the analytical conditions for each single compound and the mixture. After elimination of the compounds that turned out to be unsuitable in a multi-compound mixture, some additional oxygen- and nitrogen-containing substances were added to complete the range of calibration isotopes. The results of delta(13)C determinations for the entire set of reference compounds have previously been published, while the deltaD and delta(18)O determinations were unsuccessful and after statistical analysis of the data the results did not reach the level required for certification. In the present paper we present the results of an inter-laboratory exercise to identify and test the set of nitrogen-containing compounds present in the mixture developed for use as reference materials for the validation of GC-C-IRMS analyses in individual laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Calderone
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, Physical and Chemical Exposure Unit, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy.
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Fragkaki AG, Angelis YS, Koupparis M, Tsantili-Kakoulidou A, Kokotos G, Georgakopoulos C. Structural characteristics of anabolic androgenic steroids contributing to binding to the androgen receptor and to their anabolic and androgenic activities. Applied modifications in the steroidal structure. Steroids 2009; 74:172-97. [PMID: 19028512 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2008.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Revised: 10/21/2008] [Accepted: 10/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are synthetic derivatives of testosterone introduced for therapeutic purposes providing enhanced anabolic potency with reduced androgenic effects. Androgens mediate their action through their binding to the androgen receptor (AR) which is mainly expressed in androgen target tissues, such as the prostate, skeletal muscle, liver and central nervous system. This paper reviews some of the wide spectrum of testosterone and synthetic AAS structure modifications related to the intended enhancement in anabolic activity. The structural features of steroids necessary for effective binding to the AR and those which contribute to the stipulation of the androgenic and anabolic activities are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- A G Fragkaki
- Doping Control Laboratory of Athens, Olympic Athletic Center of Athens Spyros Louis, Kifisias 37, 15123 Maroussi, Greece
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To gather data and examine the use by elite Olympic athletes of food supplements and pharmaceutical preparations in total and per sport, country, and gender. DESIGN Survey study. SETTING Athens 2004 Olympic Games (OG). PARTICIPANTS Data from 2 sources were collected: athletes' declaration of medications/supplements intake recorded on the Doping Control Official Record during sample collection for doping control, and athletes' application forms for granting of a therapeutic use exemption (TUE) and through the abbreviated TUE process (aTUE). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Classification of declared food supplements according to the active ingredient and medications according to therapeutic actions and active compounds. RESULTS 24.3% of the athletes tested for doping control declared no use of medications or food supplements. Food supplements (45.3%) continue to be popular, with vitamins (43.2%) and proteins/aminoacids (13.9%) in power sports being most widely used. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents and analgesics were also commonly used by athletes (11.1% and 3.7%, respectively). The use of the hemoderivative actovegin and several nonprohibited anabolic preparations are discussed. The prevalence of medication use for asthma and the dangers of drug interactions are also presented.Laboratory analysis data reveal that of the aTUEs received for inhaled glucocorticosteroids, only budesonide was detectable in significant percentage (10.0%). Only 6.5% of the 445 athletes approved to inhale beta2-agonists led to an adverse analytical finding. CONCLUSIONS This review demonstrates that overuse of food supplements was slightly reduced compared to previous OGs and a more rational approach to the use of medication is being adopted.
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Comparative study of the medication use by athletes in Olympic and Paralympic Games in Athens and their implications in doping control. Toxicol Lett 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.06.691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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29
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Analytical and logistical improvements in doping-control analysis at the 2007 Pan-American Games. Trends Analyt Chem 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2008.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Hemmersbach P. History of mass spectrometry at the Olympic Games. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2008; 43:839-853. [PMID: 18570181 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry has played a decisive role in doping analysis and doping control in human sport for almost 40 years. The standard of qualitative and quantitative determinations in body fluids has always attracted maximum attention from scientists. With its unique sensitivity and selectivity properties, mass spectrometry provides state-of-the-art technology in analytical chemistry. Both anti-doping organizations and the athletes concerned expect the utmost endeavours to prevent false-positive and false-negative results of the analytical evidence. The Olympic Games play an important role in international sport today and are milestones for technical development in doping analysis. This review of the part played by mass spectrometry in doping control from Munich 1972 to Beijing 2008 Olympics gives an overview of how doping analysis has developed and where we are today. In recognizing the achievements made towards effective doping control, it is of the utmost importance to applaud the joint endeavours of the World Anti-Doping Agency, the International Olympic Committee, the international federations and national anti-doping agencies to combat doping. Advances against the misuse of prohibited substances and methods, which are performance-enhancing, dangerous to health and violate the spirit of sport, can be achieved only if all the stakeholders work together.
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Petróczi A. Attitudes and doping: a structural equation analysis of the relationship between athletes' attitudes, sport orientation and doping behaviour. SUBSTANCE ABUSE TREATMENT PREVENTION AND POLICY 2007; 2:34. [PMID: 17996097 PMCID: PMC2217289 DOI: 10.1186/1747-597x-2-34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2007] [Accepted: 11/09/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2023]
Abstract
Background For effective deterrence methods, individual, systemic and situational factors that make an athlete or athlete group more susceptible to doping than others should be fully investigated. Traditional behavioural models assume that the behaviour in question is the ultimate end. However, growing evidence suggests that in doping situations, the doping behaviour is not the end but a means to an end, which is gaining competitive advantage. Therefore, models of doping should include and anti-doping policies should consider attitudes or orientations toward the specific target end, in addition to the attitude toward the 'tool' itself. Objectives The aim of this study was to empirically test doping related dispositions and attitudes of competitive athletes with the view of informing anti-doping policy developments and deterrence methods. To this end, the paper focused on the individual element of the drug availability – athlete's personality – situation triangle. Methods Data were collected by questionnaires containing a battery of psychological tests among competitive US male college athletes (n = 199). Outcome measures included sport orientation (win and goal orientation and competitiveness), doping attitude, beliefs and self-reported past or current use of doping. A structural equation model was developed based on the strength of relationships between these outcome measures. Results Whilst the doping model showed satisfactory fit, the results suggested that athletes' win and goal orientation and competitiveness do not play a statistically significant role in doping behaviour, but win orientation has an effect on doping attitude. The SEM analysis provided empirical evidence that sport orientation and doping behaviour is not directly related. Conclusion The considerable proportion of doping behaviour unexplained by the model suggests that other factors play an influential role in athletes' decisions regarding prohibited methods. Future research, followed by policy development, should incorporate these factors to capture the complexity of the doping phenomenon and to identify points for effective anti-doping interventions. Sport governing bodies and anti-doping organisations need to recognise that using performance enhancements may be more of a rational, outcome optimizing behaviour than deviance and consider offering acceptable alternative performance-enhancing methods to doping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- Kingston University, School of Life Sciences, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, UK.
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32
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Hatton CK. Beyond sports-doping headlines: the science of laboratory tests for performance-enhancing drugs. Pediatr Clin North Am 2007; 54:713-33, xi. [PMID: 17723873 DOI: 10.1016/j.pcl.2007.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This primer on urine analysis in sports-doping control is an overview with an emphasis on the main analytical chemistry technologies in use: gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS), isotope ratio mass spectrometry detection of exogenous testosterone use, and isoelectric focusing detection of recombinant erythropoietin (EPO) use. Included are graphic examples of GC-MS selected ion monitoring and full scan, LC-MS-MS, and EPO test electropherogram data; a list of common acronyms; and answers to questions frequently asked about tampering and test accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline K Hatton
- UCLA Olympic Laboratory, University of California at Los Angeles, 2122 Granville Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90025, USA.
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Kolmonen M, Leinonen A, Pelander A, Ojanperä I. A general screening method for doping agents in human urine by solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2007; 585:94-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2006] [Revised: 12/12/2006] [Accepted: 12/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Georgakopoulos CG, Vonaparti A, Stamou M, Kiousi P, Lyris E, Angelis YS, Tsoupras G, Wuest B, Nielen MWF, Panderi I, Koupparis M. Preventive doping control analysis: liquid and gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry for detection of designer steroids. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:2439-46. [PMID: 17610244 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
A new combined doping control screening method for the analysis of anabolic steroids in human urine using liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization orthogonal acceleration time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LCoaTOFMS) and gas chromatography/electron ionization orthogonal acceleration time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GCoaTOFMS) has been developed in order to acquire accurate full scan MS data to be used to detect designer steroids. The developed method allowed the detection of representative prohibited substances, in addition to steroids, at concentrations of 10 ng/mL for anabolic agents and metabolites, 30 ng/mL for corticosteroids, 500 ng/mL for stimulants and beta-blockers, 250 ng/mL for diuretics, and 200 ng/mL for narcotics. Sample preparation was based on liquid-liquid extraction of hydrolyzed human urine, and the final extract was analyzed as trimethylsilylated derivatives in GCoaTOFMS and underivatized in LCoaTOFMS in positive ion mode. The sensitivity, mass accuracy, advantages and limitations of the developed method are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Costas G Georgakopoulos
- Doping Control Laboratory of Athens, Olympic Athletic Center of Athens Spiros Louis, 37 Kifissias Ave., 151 23 Maroussi, Greece.
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Van Eenoo P, Delbeke FT. Metabolism and excretion of anabolic steroids in doping control--new steroids and new insights. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2006; 101:161-78. [PMID: 17000101 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2006] [Accepted: 06/29/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The use of anabolic steroids in sports is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Until the 1990s, anabolic steroids were solely manufactured by pharmaceutical companies, albeit sometimes on demand from national sports agencies as part of their doping program. Recently the list of prohibited anabolic steroids in sports has grown due to the addition of numerous steroids that have been introduced on the market by non-pharmaceutical companies. Moreover, several designer steroids, specifically developed to circumvent doping control, have also been detected. Because anabolic steroids are most often intensively subjected to phase I metabolism and seldom excreted unchanged, excretion studies need to be performed in order to detect their misuse. This review attempts to summarise the results of excretion studies of recent additions to the list of prohibited steroids in sports. Additionally an update and insight on new aspects for "older" steroids with respect to doping control is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Van Eenoo
- Doping Control Laboratory (DoCoLab), Ghent University (UGent), Technologiepark 30, B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
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Spyridaki MH, Kiousi P, Vonaparti A, Valavani P, Zonaras V, Zahariou M, Sianos E, Tsoupras G, Georgakopoulos C. Doping control analysis in human urine by liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization ion trap mass spectrometry for the Olympic Games Athens 2004: Determination of corticosteroids and quantification of ephedrines, salbutamol and morphine. Anal Chim Acta 2006; 573-574:242-9. [PMID: 17723530 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.04.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2005] [Revised: 04/17/2006] [Accepted: 04/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A new liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS) (n) ion trap method for the determination of corticosteroids in urine has been developed and validated. Some anabolic agents, such as epitrenbolone, trenbolone, 2-hydroxymethylformebolone, tetrahydrogestrinone, gestrinone and formoterol were included in the LC-ESI-MS method. Matrix interference, specificity, identification capability, carry over and robustness were estimated as validation parameters. Recoveries ranged from 74 to 113% at the minimum required performance limit (MRPL), which is 30 ng mL(-1) for corticosteroids and 10 ng mL(-1) for anabolic agents. Methods for the confirmation and quantification of norpseudoephedrine, ephedrine, methylephedrine, salbutamol, morphine and morphine glucuronide were also developed and validated and in order to minimize analysis time, direct urine injection was used. These methods proved to be specific, accurate and precise across a calibration range for each substance since matrix interference, specificity, carry over, within and between run precision, limit of detection, limit of quantification, intermediate precision and uncertainty were estimated.
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Affiliation(s)
- M-H Spyridaki
- Athens Doping Control Laboratory, Olympic Athletic Center of Athens Spiros Louis, 37 Kifissias Ave., 151 23 Maroussi, Athens, Greece
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