Size and concentration determination of (functionalised) fullerenes in surface and sewage water matrices using field flow fractionation coupled to an online accurate mass spectrometer: Method development and validation

The occurrence of pristine and functionalized fullerenes as constituents of airborne aerosols

We investigated if pristine and functionalized fullerenes could be actual constituents of fine atmospheric aerosols. Comprehensive profiles of fullerenes from 1 µL extracts were made through matrix laser desorption ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-MS) within a few minutes. The ion with m/z 720, corresponding to [C₆₀]^-•, was identified as fullerene after 1 µL of α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid matrix solution was spotted over the dried extracts. The ions with the m/z corresponding to C₇₀, C₇₆, C₈₄, C₁₀₀, C₁₁₈, C₁₂₈, and C₁₃₀ were also attributed to other fullerene species detected within the samples. The ion m/z 878 was found to be the fullerene derivative diethyl methano[60]fullerene dicarboxylate. Since ions of fragmented fullerene molecules were not detected even at high laser energies, we considered the fullerenes' occurring as original constituents of real atmospheric particle matrices instead of being formed as artifacts of the laser action on samples. Therefore, this protocol would be helpful in the understanding of the distribution of either pristine or functionalized fullerenes in the environment and their participation in atmospheric chemistry under typical conditions, as well as its application in vitro and in vivo (eco)toxicity studies.

An overview on atmospheric carbonaceous particulate matter into carbon nanomaterials: A new approach for air pollution mitigation

Air pollutants consisting of atmospheric particulate matter (PM) poses a major threat to the environment and human health. However, due to their carbonaceous nature, these atmospheric PM can also be used as a precursor for fabrication of high-valued carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) leading to waste to wealth as well as mitigation of air pollution. Over the few years, various results have been reported on different types of physical and chemical methods for the synthesis of CNMs from atmospheric particulate matter with the help of top down and bottom up methods; however, there is a lack of review on these innovative processes and outcome in order to assess their feasibility and suitability for further investigation. This review critically assesses the synthesis, identification, and characterization of different types of CNMs derived from the atmospheric PM. The fascinating fluorescence properties along with the novel multifarious applications of such PM-derived CNMs are also extensively discussed in this review work. This unique review will certainly help to make a new avenue for air pollution mitigation through conversion of PMs in to value added nanomaterials (VNMs) and will boost the research activity in the field of environmental nanotechnology for a cleaner environment.

Detection of C60 in environmental water using dispersive liquid-liquid micro-extraction followed by high-performance liquid chromatography

The wide application of fullerene C₆₀ nanoparticles would inevitably lead to their release into the environment. In order to evaluate the environment risks of C₆₀ and the subsequent effects on ecosystem health, a reliable quantitative methodology of C₆₀ should be established. In this study, a rapid pretreatment method called low-density solvent-based dispersive liquid-liquid micro-extraction (DLLME) combined high-performance liquid chromatography-UV detector (HPLC-UV) was developed to detect C₆₀ in environmental water. In this proposed method, toluene and methanol were chosen as the extraction solvent and the dispersive solvent, respectively. The optimized volume of extraction solvent and dispersive solvent were 100 μL and 10 μL, respectively. And the best shaking time was chosen as 10 min at room temperature for the optimal homogenization procedure for the extraction of C₆₀ in water samples. The enrichment factor of 50 was obtained with 100 μL toluene, and the recoveries of C₆₀ from various environmental samples were in the range of 81.4 ± 5.0-101.4 ± 6.2% at 1.25-5.00 µg/L spiked levels. The detection limits of C₆₀ in tap water, surface water, living sewage and mining waste water were 0.19, 0.29, 0.34 and 0.22 μg/L, respectively. The low detection limit, good linear range and high recoveries of C₆₀ in environmental water indicated that the proposed method could provide an efficient approach for the analysis and tracking of C₆₀ in the environment.

Occurrence of C60 and related fullerenes in the Sava River under different hydrologic conditions

The presence of nanomaterials in the environment has caught the attention of the scientific because of the uncertainties in their fate, mobility and potential toxic effects. However, few studies have determined experimentally their concentration levels in aquatic systems up to date, which complicates the development of an adequate risk assessment. In the present study, the occurrence of ten fullerenes has been assessed in the Sava River (Southeastern Europe): 27 freshwater samples and 12 sediment samples from 12 sampling points have been analysed during two sampling campaigns. C₆₀ was the most ubiquitous fullerene, with concentrations of 8 pg/l-59 ng/l and 108-895 pg/g_dw in water and sediments, respectively. Statistically significant differences existed between the levels in 2014 and 2015, which has been attributed to the extreme hydrologic conditions (severe floods and drought, respectively). C₇₀ fullerene has been detected in most of the samples and the fullerene derivatives [6,6]-phenyl C₆₁ butyric acid methyl ester and N‑methyl fulleropyrrolidine have been detected eventually, which highlights that nanotechnology research and development activities are responsible for emitting these emerging contaminants to the environment. The role of diverse potential anthropogenic sources (including oil refinery, general industrial activity, river navigation, urban emissions and nanotechnology) is discussed.

Fullerene C60 in Atmospheric Aerosol and Its Relationship to Combustion Processes

Fullerenes are emerging pollutants, and it is essential to determine and quantify these compounds to assess environmental risk and environmental flows. The goal of this work was to determine the fullerene C₆₀ emission levels in the atmospheric aerosol and their relationship with combustion processes. To measure the concentration, a fullerene C₆₀ extraction method with toluene was optimized in air samples using ultrasound, followed by analysis using high-pressure, liquid chromatography-diode array detector-mass spectrometry. This method has been applied to outdoor and indoor environmental samples collected in different places in Vitoria-Gasteiz (Spain), with diverse environmental characteristics, as well as at the exhaust outlets of different vehicles with and without catalytic converters. The maximum concentration of fullerene C₆₀ present in the outdoor samples was 2.27 pg/m³, and the maximum concentration was 10.50 pg/m³ in indoor environments. The air samples collected at the exhaust outlets of vehicles without catalytic converters showed fullerene C₆₀ concentrations above 170 pg/m³, while in the case of vehicles with catalytic converters, the detected concentration of fullerene C₆₀ was lower than the limit of quantification.

First determination of fullerenes in the Austrian market and environment: quantitative analysis and assessment

This study forms the first report on analyzing fullerenes in the Austrian environment and cosmetic products available on the Austrian market. We developed, optimized, and validated a novel method for the analysis of C₆₀ and C₇₀ fullerenes and N-methylfulleropyrrolidine C₆₀ (NMFP) for measuring sensitivities in the low nanograms per liter range in order to prove their presence in the environment (12 wastewater- and 12 sewage sludge samples) and in 11 selected fullerene-containing cosmetic products from three different brands. The optimized method relies on a liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) or solid-liquid extraction (SLE) and, for the first time, introduced the Carrez-clarification, followed by liquid chromatography (LC) and coupled to a hybrid triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (MS) quantification. The total variability of the new established LC-MS/MS method based on all the tested matrices was below 10%. We found recoveries generally higher than 70% for both tap water and surface water. The limits of quantitation (LOQ) for the wastewater samples were measured to be from 0.8 to 1.6 ng/L, for the sewage sludge samples, from 1.4 to 2.6 ng/g DM (drymass), and for the cosmetic samples from 0.2 to 0.4 ng/g. None of the analyzed samples of wastewater or sewage sludge samples contained fullerenes. But in 70% of the tested cosmetics, fullerene concentrations between 10 and 340 ng/g were detected. These values were much lower than concentrations causing toxicity in water animals.

Nanomaterials in Food Products: A New Analytical Challenge

This chapter focuses on the problem of detecting, characterizing, and determining the concentration of nanomaterials in foods and other biological matrices. After providing an overview of the unique challenges associated with nanoparticle metrology in complex media, sample pretreatment methods (including extraction, digestion, and inline chromatographic separation), imaging analysis, and nanomaterial quantification methods are presented in detail. The chapter also addresses numerous methods under development, including atmospheric scanning electron microscopy, single-particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, immunological detection methods, and optical techniques such surface plasmon resonance. The chapter concludes with an overview of the research needs in this area.

Microplastic Exposure Assessment in Aquatic Environments: Learning from Similarities and Differences to Engineered Nanoparticles

Microplastics (MPs) have been identified as contaminants of emerging concern in aquatic environments and research into their behavior and fate has been sharply increasing in recent years. Nevertheless, significant gaps remain in our understanding of several crucial aspects of MP exposure and risk assessment, including the quantification of emissions, dominant fate processes, types of analytical tools required for characterization and monitoring, and adequate laboratory protocols for analysis and hazard testing. This Feature aims at identifying transferrable knowledge and experience from engineered nanoparticle (ENP) exposure assessment. This is achieved by comparing ENP and MPs based on their similarities as particulate contaminants, whereas critically discussing specific differences. We also highlight the most pressing research priorities to support an efficient development of tools and methods for MPs environmental risk assessment.

Is there evidence for man-made nanoparticles in the Dutch environment?

Only very limited information is available on measured environmental concentrations of nanoparticles. In this study, several environmental compartments in The Netherlands were probed for the presence of nanoparticles. Different types of water were screened for the presence of inorganic (Ag, Au, TiO₂) and organic nanoparticles (C₆₀, C₇₀, [6,6]-phenyl-C₆₁-butyric acid octyl ester, [6,6]-phenyl-C₆₁-butyric acid butyl ester, [6,6]-phenyl-C₆₁-butyric acid methyl ester, [6,6]-bis-phenyl-C₆₁-butyric acid methyl ester, [6,6]-phenyl-C₇₁-butyric acid methyl ester, [6,6]-thienyl-C₆₁-butyric acid methyl ester). Air samples were analysed for the presence of nanoparticulate Mo, Ag, Ce, W, Pd, Pt, Rh, Zn, Ti, Si, B as well as Fe and Cu. ICP-MS, Orbitrap-HRMS, SEM and EDX were used for this survey. Water samples included dune and bank filtrates, surface waters and ground waters as well as influents, effluents and sludge of sewage treatment plants (STPs), and surface waters collected near airports and harbours. Air samples included both urban and rural samples. C₆₀ was detected in air, sewage treatment plants, influents, effluents and sludge, but in no other aqueous samples despite the low detection limit of 0.1ng/L. C₇₀ and functionalised fullerenes were not detected at all. In STP sludge and influent the occurrence of Ag and Au nanoparticles was verified by SEM/EDX and ICP-MS. In air up to about 25m% of certain metals was found in the nanosize fraction. Overall, between 1 and 6% of the total mass from metals in the air samples was found in the size fraction <100nm.

Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry: The Transformation of Modern Environmental Analyses

Unknown compounds in environmental samples are difficult to identify using standard mass spectrometric methods. Fourier transform mass spectrometry (FTMS) has revolutionized how environmental analyses are performed. With its unsurpassed mass accuracy, high resolution and sensitivity, researchers now have a tool for difficult and complex environmental analyses. Two features of FTMS are responsible for changing the face of how complex analyses are accomplished. First is the ability to quickly and with high mass accuracy determine the presence of unknown chemical residues in samples. For years, the field has been limited by mass spectrometric methods that were based on knowing what compounds of interest were. Secondly, by utilizing the high resolution capabilities coupled with the low detection limits of FTMS, analysts also could dilute the sample sufficiently to minimize the ionization changes from varied matrices.