An in-source multiple collision-neutral loss filtering based nontargeted metabolomics approach for the comprehensive analysis of malonyl-ginsenosides from Panax ginseng , P. quinquefolius , and P. notoginseng

Changes in chemical components and hepatoprotective effect of red Panax notoginseng processed by aspartic acid impregnation treatment

BACKGROUND

Red Panax notoginseng (RPN) is one of the major processed products of P. notoginseng (PN), with more effective biological activities. However, the traditional processing method of RPN has some disadvantages, such as low conversion rate of ginsenosides and long processing time.

RESULTS

In this work, we developed a green, safe, and efficient approach for RPN processing by aspartic acid impregnation pretreatment. Our results showed that the optimized temperature, steaming time, and concentration of aspartic acid were 120 °C, 1 h, and 3% respectively. The original ginsenosides in PN treated by aspartic acid (Asp-PN) were completely converted to rare saponins at 120 °C within just 1 h. The concentration of the rare ginsenosides in Asp-PN was two times higher than that in untreated RPN. In addition, we examined the protective effect of RPN and Asp-PN on acetaminophen-induced liver injury in a mouse model. The results showed that Asp-PN has significantly more potent hepatoprotective action than the RPN. The hepatoprotection of Asp-PN in acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity may be due to its anti-oxidative stress, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities.

CONCLUSION

These results indicated that aspartic acid impregnation pretreatment may provide an effective method to shorten the steaming time, improve the conversion rate of ginsenosides, and enhance hepatoprotective activity of RPN. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

A widely targeted metabolite modificomics strategy for modified metabolites identification in tomato

The structural and functional diversity of plant metabolites is largely created via chemical modification of a basic backbone. However, metabolite modifications in plants have still not been thoroughly investigated by metabolomics approaches. In this study, a widely targeted metabolite modificomics (WTMM) strategy was developed based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-linear ion trap (UHPLC-Q-Trap) and UHPLC-Q-Exactive-Orbitrap (UHPLC-QE-Orbitrap), which greatly improved the detection sensitivity and the efficiency of identification of modified metabolites. A metabolite modificomics study was carried out using tomato as a model, and over 34,000 signals with MS2 information were obtained from approximately 232 neutral loss transitions. Unbiased metabolite profiling was also performed by utilizing high-resolution mass spectrometry data to annotate a total of 2,118 metabolites with 125 modification types; of these, 165 modified metabolites were identified in this study. Next, the WTMM database was used to assess diseased tomato tissues and 29 biomarkers were analyzed. In summary, the WTMM strategy is not only capable of large-scale detection and quantitative analysis of plant-modified metabolites in plants, but also can be used for plant biomarker development.

Specific fractionation of ginsenosides based on activated carbon fibers and online fast screening of ginseng extract by mass spectrometry

Ginseng is beneficial in the prevention of many diseases and provides benefits for proper growth and development owing to the presence of various useful bioactive substances of diverse chemical heterogeneity (e.g., triterpenoid saponins, polysaccharides, volatile oils, and amino acids). As a result, understanding the therapeutic advantages of ginseng requires an in-depth compositional evaluation employing a simple and rapid analytical technique. In this work, three types of surface-activated carbon fibers (ACFs) were prepared by gas-phase oxidation, strong acid treatment, and Plasma treatment to obtain CO2-ACFs, acidified-ACFs, and plasma-ACFs, respectively. Three prepared ACFs were compared in terms of their physicochemical characterization (i.e., surface roughness and functional groups). A separation system was built using a column with modified ACFs, followed by mass spectrometry detection to investigate and determine substances of different polarities. Among the three columns, CO2-ACFs showed the optimum separation effect. 13 strong polar compounds (12 amino acids and1 oligosaccharide) and 15 lesser polar compounds (ginsenosides) were separated and identified successfully within 4 min in the ginseng sample. The data obtained by CO2-ACFs-TOF-MS/MS and UHPLC-TOF-MS/MS were compared. Our approach was found to be faster (4 min vs. 36 min) and greener, requiring much less solvent (1 mL vs. 10.8 mL), and power (0.06 vs. 0.6 kWh). The developed methodology can provide a faster, eco-friendly, and more reliable tool for the high-throughput screening of complex natural matrices and the simultaneous evaluation of several compounds in diverse samples.

Mass spectrometry-based ginsenoside profiling: Recent applications, limitations, and perspectives

Ginseng, the roots of Panax species, is an important medicinal herb used as a tonic. As ginsenosides are key bioactive components of ginseng, holistic chemical profiling of them has provided many insights into understanding ginseng. Mass spectrometry has been a major methodology for profiling, which has been applied to realize numerous goals in ginseng research, such as the discrimination of different species, geographical origins, and ages, and the monitoring of processing and biotransformation. This review summarizes the various applications of ginsenoside profiling in ginseng research over the last three decades that have contributed to expanding our understanding of ginseng. However, we also note that most of the studies overlooked a crucial factor that influences the levels of ginsenosides: genetic variation. To highlight the effects of genetic variation on the chemical contents, we present our results of untargeted and targeted ginsenoside profiling of different genotypes cultivated under identical conditions, in addition to data regarding genome-level genetic diversity. Additionally, we analyze the other limitations of previous studies, such as imperfect variable control, deficient metadata, and lack of additional effort to validate causation. We conclude that the values of ginsenoside profiling studies can be enhanced by overcoming such limitations, as well as by integrating with other -omics techniques.

MATLAB language assisted data acquisition and processing in liquid chromatography Orbitrap mass spectrometry: Application to the identification and differentiation of Radix Bupleuri from its adulterants

Comprehensive and rapid analysis of secondary metabolites like saponins remains challenging. This study aimed to establish a semi-automated workflow for filtration, identification, and characterization of saikosaponins in six Bupleurum species. Radix Bupleuri, a high-sales herbal medicine, is often adulterated, restricting its quality control and applications. Two authentic Radix Bupleuri species and four major adulterants were analyzed through UHPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS for targeted saikosaponin analysis. To reveal trace saikosaponins and obtain quality fragment data, a MATLAB-based process automatically enumerating "sugar chain + aglycone + side chain" combinations and deduplicating generated a predicted saikosaponin database covering all possible saikosaponins as a precursor ion list for comprehensive targeted acquisition. To focus on informative ions and reduce MS analysis workload, we utilized MATLAB to automatically filtrate the false positive ions by MS1 and MS2 spectrometry. The newly established MATLAB-assisted data acquisition approach exhibited 50 % improvement in characterization of targeted saikosaponins. Furthermore, positive and negative ionization workflows were designed for accurate saikosaponins characterization based on fragmentation rules. In total, 707 saikosaponins were characterized, including over 500 potential new compounds and previously unreported C29 aglycones. We identified 25 saikosaponins present in both authentic species but absent in adulterants as potential markers. This unprecedented comprehensive multi-origin species differentiation demonstrates the promise of MATLAB-assisted acquisition and processing to advance saponin identification and standardize the Radix Bupleuri market.

An integrated approach for studying the metabolic profiling of herbal medicine in mice using high-resolution mass spectrometry and metabolomics data processing tools

Analysis of exposure to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in vivo based on mass spectrometry is helpful for the screening of effective ingredients of TCM and the development of new drugs. The method of screening biomarkers through metabolomics technology is a nontargeted research method to explore the differential components between two sets of biological samples. By taking this advantage, this study aims to takes Forsythia suspensa, which is a TCM also known as Lian Qiao (LQ), as the research object and to study its in vivo exposure by using metabolomics technology. By comparing the significant differences between biological samples before and after administration, it could be focused on the components that were significantly upregulated, where a complete set of analysis strategies for nontargeted TCM in vivo exposure mass spectrometry was established. Furthermore, the threshold parameters for peak extraction, parameter selection during statistical data analysis, and sample concentration multiples in this method have also been optimized. More interestingly, by using the established analysis strategy, we found 393 LQ-related chemical components in mice after administration, including 102 prototypes and 291 LQ-related metabolites, and plotted their metabolic profiles in vivo. In short, this study has obtained a complete mass spectrum of LQ exposure in mice in vivo for the first time, which provides a reference for research on the active ingredients of LQ in vivo. More importantly, compared with other methods, the analysis strategy of nontargeted exposure of TCM in vivo-based mass spectrometry, constructed by using this research method, has good universality and does not require self-developed postprocessing software. It is worth mentioning that, for the identification and characterization of trace amounts of metabolites in vivo, this analysis strategy has no discrimination and has a detection capability similar to that of highly exposed components.

Systematical targeted multicomponent characterization and comparison of Arnebiae Radix and its three confusing species by offline two-dimensional liquid chromatography/LTQ-Orbitrap mass spectrometry

Arnebiae Radix, commonly known as "Zicao," can be easily confused with other compounding species, posing challenges for its clinical use. Here, we developed a comprehensive strategy to systematically characterize the diverse components across Arnebiae Radix and its three confusing species. First, an offline two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D-LC) system integrating hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) and reverse phase (RP) separations was established, enabling effective separation and detection of more trace constituents. Second, a polygonal mass defect filtering (MDF) workflow was implemented to screen target ions and generate a precursor ion list (PIL) to guide multistage mass (MSn) data acquisition. Third, a three-step characterization strategy utilizing diagnostic ions and neutral losses was developed for rapid determination of molecular formulas, structure classes, and compound identification. This approach enabled systematic characterization of Arnebiae Radix and its three confusing species, with 437 components characterized including 112 shikonins, 22 shikonfurans, 144 phenolic acids, 131 glycosides, 18 flavonoids, and 10 other compounds. Additionally, 361, 230, 340, and 328 components were identified from RZC, YZC, DZC, and ZZC, respectively, with 142 common components and 30 characteristic components that may serve as potential markers for distinguishing the four species. In summary, this is the first comprehensive characterization and comparison of the phytochemical profiles of Arnebiae Radix and its three confusing species, advancing our understanding of this herbal medicine for quality control.

Discovery of effective combination from Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair against heart failure by spectrum-effect relationship analysis and zebrafish models

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditional herbal pair Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma (roots and rhizomes of Panax ginseng C.A. Mey, Renshen in Chinese) and Aconiti Lateralis Radix Praeparata (lateral roots of Aconitum carmichaelii Debeaux, Fuzi in Chinese), composition of two traditional Chinese medicinal herbs, has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine formula, in which Shenfu decoction has been used clinically in China for the treatment of heart failure at present.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Although the ginsenosides and aconite alkaloids have been proven as the essential bioactive components in Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair, the exact composition of effective components to combat heart failure are still unclear. Therefore, spectrum-effect relationship analysis was performed to reveal its effective combination for anti-heart failure effect.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Firstly, the chemical constituents of Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair were identified using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF MS). The 39 major compounds in Renshen-Fuzi with five different compatibility ratios were simultaneously quantified using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QQQ MS/MS). Subsequently, zebrafish models induced by verapamil hydrochloride were constructed and four heart failure-related indexes were selected for pharmacodynamic evaluation of Renshen-Fuzi. To analyze the spectrum-effect relationships, partial least squares regression (PLSR) models were established among the contents of 39 compounds in Renshen-Fuzi with each pharmacodynamic index. According to the contribution of each compound to the whole efficacy, 12 compounds were finally screened out as the effective combination.

RESULTS

A total of 157 chemical compounds of Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair were identified, in which 39 components were simultaneously determined. The pharmacological effects indicated that Renshen-Fuzi with 1:2 ratio exhibited the best effect based on zebrafish model, which could improve cardiac output and blood flow velocity and inhibit pericardial enlargement and venous blood stasis significantly. A combination of 9 ginsenosides and 3 aconite alkaloids based on a component-efficacy modeling by PLSR was screened, and exerted approximately equivalent pharmacological effects compared with Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings elucidated the effective combination of Renshen-Fuzi herbal pair that has been used in clinic for the treatment of heart failure, which could also promote the pharmacological research and quality control of their formula such as Shenfu decoction.

Integration of non-targeted multicomponent profiling, targeted characteristic chromatograms and quantitative to accomplish systematic quality evaluation strategy of Huo-Xiang-Zheng-Qi oral liquid

Huo-Xiang-Zheng-Qi oral liquid (HXZQOL) is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine formula for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases, with the pharmacologic effects of antiinflammatory, immune protection and gastrointestinal motility regulation. More significantly, HXZQOL is recommended for the treatment of COVID-19 patients with gastrointestinal symptoms, and it has been clinically proven to reduce the inflammatory response in patients with COVID-19. However, the effective and overall quality control of HXZQOL is currently limited due to its complex composition, especially the large amount of volatile and non-volatile active components involved. In this study, aimed to fully develop a comprehensive strategy based on non-targeted multicomponent identification, targeted authentication and quantitative analysis for quality evaluation of HXZQOL from different batches. Firstly, the non-targeted high-definition MSE (HDMSE) approach is established based on UHPLC/IM-QTOF-MS, utilized for multicomponent comprehensive characterization of HXZQOL. Combined with in house library-driven automated peak annotation and comparison of 47 reference compounds, 195 components were initially identified. In addition, HS-SPME-GC-MS was employed to analyze the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in HXZQOL, and a total of 61 components were identified by comparison to the NIST database, reference compounds as well as retention indices. Secondly, based on the selective ion monitoring (SIM) of 24 "identity markers" (involving each herbal medicine), characteristic chromatograms (CCs) were established on LC-MS and GC-MS respectively, to authenticate 15 batches of HXZQOL samples. The targeted-SIM CCs showed that all marker compounds in 15 batches of samples could be accurately monitored, which could indicate preparations authenticity. Finally, a parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) method was established and validated to quantify the nine compounds in 15 batches of HXZQOL. Conclusively, this study first reports chemical-material basis, SIM CCs and quality evaluation of HXZQOL, which is of great implication to quality control and ensuring the authenticity of the preparation.

Discrimination for geographical origin of Panax quinquefolius L. using UPLC Q-Orbitrap MS-based metabolomics approach

American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L., is an important medicinal plant with multiple pharmacological effects and high nutritional value. American ginseng from different geographical origins varies in quality and price. However, there was no approach for discriminating American ginseng from different geographical origins to date. In this study, a metabolomic method based on the UPLC-Orbitrap fusion platform was established to comprehensively determine and analyze metabolites of American ginseng from America and Canada, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, and Shandong provinces in China. A total of 382 metabolites were detected, including 230 saponins, 30 amino acids and derivatives, 27 organic acids and derivatives, 25 lipids, 17 carbohydrates and derivatives, 10 phenols, 8 nucleotides, and derivatives, as well as 35 other metabolites. Metabolite differences between North America and Asia producing areas were more obvious than within Asia. Twenty metabolites, contributed most to the differentiation of producing areas, were identified as potential markers with prediction accuracy higher than 91%. The results provide new insights into the metabolite composition of American ginseng from different origins, which will help discriminate origins and promote quality control of American ginseng.

Widespread occurrence of in-source fragmentation in the analysis of natural compounds by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

The in-source fragmentation (ISF) of analyte or co-eluting substances produces unintentional fragment ions, which hampers identification and quantification by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS). Natural compounds derived from plants also contain fragile moieties that may undergo ISF. However, the characteristics of ISF of natural compounds in LC/MS are still unclear.

METHODS

The ISF behavior of 214 natural compounds was assayed in LC with Q/orbitrap MS in electrospray ionization (ESI) mode and the extent of ISF was evaluated.

RESULTS

Up to 82% of tested compounds underwent ISF and half of the tested natural compounds that contain more than one fragile moiety underwent successive and severe ISF to generate serial structurally related ISF products. The major ISF-altering moieties for natural compounds were hydroxyl, lactone, glycosyl and ether, resulting in neutral loss of H₂ O or CO, deglycosylation or cleavage of ether bond, respectively. Some compounds such as terpenoids underwent severe ISF and less than 1% parent form can be observed. For natural compounds, ISF products with similar structures are more likely to cause interference in analysis because the ISF products may share identical mass-to-charge ratio and similar MS² fragmentation patterns with precursor ions of the homologs in plants. Furthermore, severe ISF may cause a false negative in the identification of the parent form.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, ISF was a highly frequent phenomenon for analysis of natural compounds by LC/ESI-MS, and extensive and successive ISF of natural products may cause misannotation and misidentification with homologs in plants. The study should raise awareness of ISF interference during the analysis of natural compounds.

An improved strategy for identification and annotation of easily in-sourced dissociation diterpene lactones from plant natural products: Taking Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) as an example

RATIONALE

Diterpene lactones (DL) in Andrographis paniculata (AP) are known as "natural antibiotics" for their excellent antibacterial activity. During mass spectrometry (MS) analysis, the hydroxyl groups in the AP DL skeleton are prone to neutral loss of H₂ O, producing high in-source fragment peaks and affecting the characterization of these components.

METHODS

Mass tags were applied during the MS data acquisition step, and special adduct ion form was used to guide the data processing and characterization steps. Besides, the total number of characterized AP DLs significantly increased when combining the number of neutrally lost H₂ O from AP DLs, incorporating information on the diagnostic ions, and adopting molecular networks generated with the Global Natural Products Social Molecular Networking database.

RESULTS

Ninety-nine DLs, comprising 6 monohydroxyl groups, 20 dihydroxyl groups, 27 trihydroxy groups, and 46 DLs with more than 3 hydroxyl groups, were characterized from AP. In addition, based on the characteristic fragments in the product ions (C₃ H₄ , Δm/z = 40.03 Da), it could be assumed that 90 DLs had the C19-OH structure among the identified DLs. The current study provides a new approach for collecting, processing, and characterizing MS analysis of natural DLs prone to in-source fragmentation.

CONCLUSIONS

MS characterization of AP DLs was significantly improved, and many potential new compounds were identified in AP. This characterization provides new methods for the purification and identification of AP DLs.

A mass defect filtering combined background subtraction strategy for rapid screening and identification of metabolites in rat plasma after oral administration of Yindan Xinnaotong soft capsule

The absorbed prototypes and metabolites of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) serves an important part in pharmacological action and clinical effects. However, the comprehensive characterization of which is facing actual or possible rigorous challenges due to the lack of data mining methods and the complexity of metabolite samples. Yindan Xinnaotong soft capsule (YDXNT), a typical traditional Chinese medicine prescription consisting of extracts from 8 herbal medicines, is widely used for the treatment of angina pectoris and ischemic stroke in the clinic. This study established a systematic data mining strategy based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem quadrupole-time-of-fight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF MS) for comprehensive metabolite profiling of YDXNT in rat plasma after oral administration. The multi-level feature ion filtration strategy was primarily conducted through the full scan MS data of plasma samples. All potential metabolites were rapidly fileted out from the endogenous background interference based on the background subtract and the chemical type specifically mass defect filter (MDF) windows including flavonoids, ginkgolides, phenolic acids, saponins, and tanshinones. As the MDF windows of certain types were overlapped, the screened-out potential metabolites were deeply characterized and identified according to their retention times (RT), integrating neutral loss filtering (NLF), diagnostic fragment ions filtering (DFIF), and further confirmed by reference standards. Thus, a total of 122 compounds, consisting of 29 prototype components (16 confirmed with reference standards) and 93 metabolites had been identified. This study provides a rapid and robust metabolite profiling method for researching complicated traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions.

LC-MS Analysis of Ginsenosides in Different Parts of Panax quinquefolius and Their Potential for Coronary Disease Improvement

Seven main ginsenosides, including ginsenoside Re, ginsenoside Rb₁, pseudoginsenoside F₁₁, ginsenoside Rb₂, ginsenoside Rb₃, ginsenoside Rd, and ginsenoside F₂, were identified by LC-QTOF MS/MS from root, leaf and flower extracts of Panax quinquefolius. These extracts promoted intersegmental vessel growth in a zebrafish model, indicating their potential cardiovascular health benefits. Network pharmacology analysis was then conducted to reveal the potential mechanisms of ginsenoside activity in the treatment of coronary artery disease. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses elucidated that G protein-coupled receptors played a critical role in VEGF-mediated signal transduction and that the molecular pathways associated with ginsenoside activity are involved in neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, cholesterol metabolism, the cGMP-PKG signaling pathway, etc. Moreover, VEGF, FGF2, and STAT3 were confirmed as the major targets inducing proliferation of endothelial cells and driving the pro-angiogenic process. Overall, ginsenosides could be potent nutraceutical agents that act to reduce the risks of cardiovascular disease. Our findings will provide a basis to utilize the whole P. quinquefolius plant in drugs and functional foods.

Pseudotargeted Metabolomics Approach Enabling the Classification-Induced Ginsenoside Characterization and Differentiation of Ginseng and Its Compound Formulation Products

The use of diversified ginseng extracts in health-promoting foods is difficult to differentiate, as they share bioactive ginsenosides among different Panax species (e.g., P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, P. notoginseng, and P. japonicus) and different parts (e.g., root, leaf, and flower). This work was designed to develop a pseudo-targeted metabolomics approach to discover ginsenoside markers facilitating the precise authentication of ginseng and its use in compound formulation products (CFPs). Versatile mass spectrometry experiments on the QTrap mass spectrometer achieved classified characterization of the neutral, malonyl, and oleanolic acid-type ginsenosides, with 567 components characterized. A pseudo-targeted metabolomics approach by multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) of 262 ion pairs could assist to establish key identification points for 12 ginseng species. The simultaneous detection of 14 markers enabled the identification of ginseng from 15 ginseng-containing CFPs. The pseudo-targeted metabolomics strategy enabled better performance in differentiating among multiple ginseng, compared with the full-scan high-resolution mass spectrometry approach.

Stepwise Diagnostic Product Ions Filtering Strategy for Rapid Discovery of Diterpenoids in Scutellaria barbata Based on UHPLC-Q-Exactive-Orbitrap-MS

Diterpenoids are considered the major bioactive components in Scutellaria barbata to treat cancer and inflammation, but few comprehensive profiling studies of diterpenoids have been reported. Herein, a stepwise diagnostic product ions (DPIs) filtering strategy for efficient and targeted profiling of diterpenoids in Scutellaria barbata was developed using UHPLC-Q-Exactive-Orbitrap-MS. After UHPLC-HRMS/MS analysis of six diterpenoid reference standards, fragmentation behaviors of these references were studied to provide DPIs. Then, stepwise DPIs filtering aimed to reduce the potential interferences of matrix ions and achieve more chromatographic peaks was conducted to rapidly screen the diterpenoids. The results demonstrated that stepwise DPIs were capable of simplifying the workload in data post-processing and the effective acquisition of low abundance compounds. Subsequently, DPIs and MS/MS fragment patterns were adopted to identify the targeted diterpenoids. As a result, 381 diterpenoids were unambiguously or tentatively identified, while 141 of them with completely new molecular weights were potential new diterpenoids for Scutellaria barbata. These results demonstrate that the developed stepwise DPIs filtering method could be employed as an efficient, reliable, and valuable strategy to screen and identify the diterpenoid profile in Scutellaria barbata. This might accelerate and simplify target constituent profiling from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) extracts.

Research progress on metabolomics in the quality evaluation and clinical study of Panax ginseng

Panax ginseng, an essential component of traditional medicine and often referred to as the king of herbs, has played a pivotal role in medicine globally for several millennia. Previously, traditional phytochemical methods were mainly used for quality evaluation and pharmacological mechanism studies of ginseng, resulting in the lack of systematicness and innovation and hindering the development and utilization of ginseng resources. Since the beginning of the new century, systems biology technology represented by metabolomics has shown unique advantages in the modernization and internationalization of herbal medicine, establishing a bridge for communication between traditional medicine and modern medicine. P. ginseng, a special herb used in medicine and food, is one of the main research objects for qualitative and quantitative analysis of metabolomics and has gradually become the focus of researchers globally. Here, we conducted a comprehensive summary and analysis of numerous studies published in ginseng metabolomics. This review aims to provide more novel ideas for the quality evaluation, development, and clinical application of ginseng in the future and offer more useful technical references for the modernization and internationalization of herbal medicine based on metabolomics.

Enhanced Identification of Ginsenosides Simultaneously from Seven Panax Herbal Extracts by Data-Dependent Acquisition Including a Preferred Precursor Ions List Derived from an In-House Programmed Virtual Library

Data-dependent acquisition (DDA) is widely utilized for metabolite identification in natural product research and food science, which, however, can suffer from low coverage. A potential solution to improve DDA coverage is to include the precursor ions list (PIL). Here, we aimed to construct a PIL-containing DDA strategy based on an in-house library of ginsenosides (VLG) and identify ginsenosides simultaneously from seven Panax herbal extracts. VLG, combined with mass defect filtering, could efficiently screen the ginsenoside precursors and elaborate the separate PIL involved in DDA for each ginseng extract. Consequently, we could characterize 500 ginsenosides, including 176 ones with unknown masses. Using the Panax ginseng extract, the superiority of this strategy was embodied in targeting more known ginsenoside masses and newly acquiring the MS² spectra of 13 components. Conclusively, knowledge-based large-scale molecular prediction and PIL-DDA can represent a powerful targeted/untargeted strategy beneficial to novel natural compound discovery.

Integrating Enhanced Profiling and Chemometrics to Unveil the Potential Markers for Differentiating among the Leaves of Panax ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography/Ion Mobility-Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry

The leaves of Panax species (e.g., Panax ginseng-PGL, P. quinquefolius-PQL, and P. notoginseng-PNL) can serve as a source for healthcare products. Comprehensive characterization and unveiling of the metabolomic difference among PGL, PQL, and PNL are critical to ensure their correct use. For this purpose, enhanced profiling and chemometrics were integrated to probe into the ginsenoside markers for PGL/PQL/PNL by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/ion mobility-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC/IM-QTOF-MS). A hybrid scan approach (HDMSE-HDDDA) was established achieving the dimension-enhanced metabolic profiling, with 342 saponins identified or tentatively characterized from PGL/PQL/PNL. Multivariate statistical analysis (33 batches of leaf samples) could unveil 42 marker saponins, and the characteristic ginsenosides diagnostic for differentiating among PGL/PQL/PNL were primarily established. Compared with the single DDA or DIA, the HDMSE-HDDDA hybrid scan approach could balance between the metabolome coverage and spectral reliability, leading to high-definition MS spectra and the additional collision-cross section (CCS) useful to differentiate isomers.

Mass spectrometry-based profiling and imaging strategy, a fit-for-purpose tool for unveiling the transformations of ginsenosides in Panax notoginseng during processing

BACKGROUND

Panax notoginseng, a valuable medicinal plant, is traditionally used to treat trauma, body pain, and cardiovascular diseases in two clinical forms including raw (crude) and processed form. Processing-triggered compound transformation is responsible for the distinct bioactivity between raw and processed Panax notoginseng. Nevertheless, investigating the chemical diversity and dynamic transformation pattern of processed Panax notoginseng is challenging.

METHODS

A new approach, which integrates multi-components characterization, processing trajectory depiction, discovery of differential markers, transformation mechanism of metabolites, in situ spatial distribution and transformation of metabolites, was established to elucidate the role of processing on the holistic chemical transformations of Panax notoginseng (PN).

RESULTS

In this study, 136 ginsenosides (mainly rare ginsenosides) were identified or tentatively characterized and the temperature-dependent chemical variation trajectory was depicted via principal component analysis (PCA). Nineteen processing-associated markers were confirmed by orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). For the first time, the transformation pathway of ginsenosides during processing were elucidated by integrating the precursor ion scan (PIS) and mimic processing strategy that involves with deglycosylation, dehydration, hydration, acetylation, and isomerization. Results of mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) revealed the major ginsenosides M-Rb1, R1, Rg1, Rb1, Rd, and Re exhibited distinct spatial distribution pattern that are highly abundant in the xylem and showed a downward trend during processing. We firstly depicted the spatial distribution of processing-triggered rare ginsenosides (Rg3, Rk1, Rg5, etc.), and in situ transformation of ginsenosides was discovered in the process of steaming. Additionally, this variation trend was consistent with untargeted metabolomics results.

CONCLUSION

This study comprehensively revealed chemical diversity and dynamic transformation pattern and depicted the spatial distribution of ginsenosides of PN during processing. It could provide a clue for the distinct bioactivities between raw and processed PN and elucidate the role of processing on the holistic chemical transformations of natural products, more importantly, the proposed strategy is valuable for the quality evaluation and control of the processing of natural product.

An off-line three-dimensional liquid chromatography/Q-Orbitrap mass spectrometry approach enabling the discovery of 1561 potentially unknown ginsenosides from the flower buds of Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius and Panax notoginseng

To comprehensively elucidate the herbal metabolites is crucial in natural products research to discover new lead compounds. Ginsenosides are an important class of bioactive components from the Panax plants exerting the significant tonifying effects. However, to identify new ginsenosides by the conventional strategies trends to be more and more difficult because of the large spans of acid-base property (the neutral and acidic saponins), molecular mass (400-1400 Da), and rather low content. Herein, an off-line multidimensional chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry approach was presented: ion exchange chromatography (IEC) as the first dimension of separation, hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) in the second dimension, and reversed-phase chromatography (RPC) for the third dimension which was hyphenated to a Q Exactive Q-Orbitrap mass spectrometer. By applying to the flower buds of P. ginseng (PGF), P. quinquefolius (PQF), and P. notoginseng (PNF), IEC using a PhenoSphere^TM SAX column could fractionate the total extracts into the neutral (unretained) and acidic (retained) fractions, while HILIC (an XBridge Amide column) and RPC (BEH Shield RP18 column) achieved the hydrophilic interaction and hydrophobic interaction separations, respectively. Q-Orbitrap mass spectrometry offered rich structural information and complementary resolution to the co-eluting components, particular to those minor ones by including precursor ion lists in data-dependent acquisition. We could characterize 803 ginsenosides from PGF, 795 from PQF, and 833 from PNF, and 1561 thereof are potentially unknown. These results can indicate the great potential of this multidimensional approach in the ultra-deep characterization of complex herbal samples supporting the efficient discovery of potentially novel natural compounds.

Dynamic changes of ginsenosides in Panax quinquefolium fruit at different development stages measured using UHPLC-Orbitrap MS

RATIONALE

Some studies have shown that Panax quinquefolium fruit (PQF) could also be used as a potential medicinal resource. However, little is known about the composition of ginsenosides and their dynamic changes at different development stages of PQF. Therefore, this study is of great significance for the metabolomics and rational utilization of PQF.

METHODS

The samples were analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography combined with an Orbitrap mass spectrometer (UHPLC-Orbitrap MS), and the method of metabonomics was applied to profile the dynamic changes of ginsenosides in PQF at different development stages.

RESULTS

A total of 109 ginsenosides were identified or tentatively characterized. Samples collected from different development stages were significantly discriminated according to ginsenoside contents. A total of 25 potential chemical markers enabling the differentiation were discovered.

CONCLUSIONS

For the first time, the study developed an UHPLC-Orbitrap MS-based approach to detect ginsenoside in PQF at different development stages using a non-targeted mode. This comprehensive phytochemical profile study revealed the structural diversity and discrimination of ginsenosides in PQF at different development stages, which could provide the basis for the metabolomics and rational application of PQF.

Targeted identification of glycosylated flavones and isomers in green tea through integrated ion-filtering strategy and mass-fragmentation characteristics based on the UPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS/MS platform

Glycosylated flavones (GFs) are important components of green tea and have various structures and isomers. The annotation of GFs' chemical structures is challenging. Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry can provide informative mass ions for GF annotation. However, distinguishing the mass features of GFs from those of thousands of ions is difficult. In this study, integrated ion-filtering strategies for O- and C-glycosyl flavones were constructed, and the mass-fragmentation characteristics were summarized from GF standards. Ultimately, 29 GFs with different types of aglycones and glycosides, connection modes, and locations were annotated. According to principal component analysis and t-test results, significant differences were observed in the contents of 16 components in the two kinds of tea. Among them, the contents of 11 GFs in autumn teas were significantly higher than those in spring teas. This study provided an efficient strategy for isomer annotation in food analysis.

Application of Large-Scale Molecular Prediction for Creating the Preferred Precursor Ions List to Enhance the Identification of Ginsenosides from the Flower Buds of Panax ginseng

This work was designed to evaluate the coverage of data-dependent acquisition (DDA) extensively utilized in the untargeted metabolite/component identification in the food sciences and pharmaceutical analysis. Using saponins from the flower buds of Panax ginseng (PGF) as an example, precursor ions list (PIL)-including DDA on a Q-Orbitrap mass spectrometer could enable higher coverage than the other four MS² acquisition approaches in characterizing PGF ginsenosides. A "Virtual Library of Ginsenoside" containing 13,536 ginsenoside molecules was established by C-language-programmed large-scale molecular prediction, which in combination with mass defect filtering could create a new PIL involving 1859 PGF saponin precursors. We could newly obtain the MS² spectra of at least 17 components and characterize 36 ginsenosides with unknown masses, among the 164 compounds identified from PGF. Conclusively, a molecular-prediction-oriented PIL in DDA can assist to discover more potentially novel molecules benefiting to the development of functional foods and new drugs.

A strategy integrating parent ions list-modified mass defect filtering-diagnostic product ions for rapid screening and systematic characterization of flavonoids in Scutellaria barbata using hybrid quadrupole-orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry

In this study, full scan (FS)-parent ions list (PIL)-higher energy collision induced dissociation (HCD)-MS/MS (FS-PIL-HCD-MS/MS) was used to acquire the chemical profile of flavonoids in Scutellaria barbata. Mass defect filtering (MDF) induced subtype classification and diagnostic product ions (DPIs) dominated structural confirmation were integrated into an effective strategy for the systematic screening and identification of the flavonoids. An in-house flavonoid MS database based on molecular design was established to construct a modified triangle MDF algorithm for progressive screening and subtype classification. The obtained results demonstrated that the modified MDF was capable of simplifying the workload in formula editing and subsequent screening process, and distinguishing different subtypes. The fragmentation behaviors of eleven reference standards were evaluated to obtain the MS² fragmentation pathway and DPIs which can provide a criterion to eliminate false-positive results and judge the target flavonoids with the exact number and position of substituents for the first time. Structure confirmation was characterized by comparing with the reference substance, searching the database, and analyzing DPIs. To distinguish some isomers, ClogP (the calculated lipophilicity parameter) was adopted. As a result, 127 target flavonoids, including 30 flavone/flavonol aglycones, 10 flavanone/flavanonol aglycones, 49 flavone/flavonol monoglycosides, 16 flavanone/flavanonol monoglycosides, 21 flavone/flavonol diglycosides and 1 flavanone/flavanonol diglycoside, were ultimately identified or tentatively characterized based on the MS fragmentation pathway and DPIs analysis. This study provides a novel MDF method with improved subtype classification and develops a novel strategy for the progressive screening, subtype classification and systematic characterization of complex components in herbal medicines.

Characterization and quantification of ginsenosides from the root of Panax quinquefolius L. by integrating untargeted metabolites and targeted analysis using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS coupled with UFLC-ESI-MS/MS

The root of Panax quinquefolius L. (RPQ) is considered as an important functional food and rich in bioactive components, ginsenosides. To comprehensively characterize ginsenosides and evaluate the quality of RPQ from different sources, UPLC-Triple TOF-MS coupled with UFLC-ESI-MS/MS was applied to untargeted metabolites and targeted analysis for the first time. In untargeted metabolites analysis, a total of 225 ginsenosides were identified from RPQ using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS combined with SWATH data-independent strategy. Furthermore, the contents of 39 targeted ginsenoside markers in 14 RPQ samples were analyzed by a rapid and sensitive UFLC-ESI-MS/MS method. In addition, the results of chemometric analysis showed the quality of American RPQ was distinguished from that of Chinese RPQ according to the amount of targeted ginsenosides. This newly developed approach provides a powerful tool for enriching the diversity of saponins database and assessing the quality of RPQ, which can be further extended to other ginseng products and functional foods.

Advances and challenges in ginseng research from 2011 to 2020: the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis

Covering: 2011 to the end of 2020Panax species (Araliaceae), particularly P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng, have a long history of medicinal use because of their remarkable tonifying effects, and currently serve as crucial sources for various healthcare products, functional foods, and cosmetics, aside from their vast clinical preparations. The huge market demand on a global scale prompts the continuous prosperity in ginseng research concerning the discovery of new compounds, precise quality control, ADME (absorption/disposition/metabolism/excretion), and biosynthesis pathways. Benefitting from the ongoing rapid development of analytical technologies, e.g. multi-dimensional chromatography (MDC), personalized mass spectrometry (MS) scan strategies, and multi-omics, highly recognized progress has been made in driving ginseng analysis towards "systematicness, integrity, personalization, and intelligentization". Herein, we review the advances in the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis pathway of ginseng over the past decade (2011-2020), with 410 citations. Emphasis is placed on the introduction of new compounds isolated (saponins and polysaccharides), and the emerging novel analytical technologies and analytical strategies that favor ginseng's authentic use and global consumption. Perspectives on the challenges and future trends in ginseng analysis are also presented.

An enhanced strategy integrating offline two-dimensional separation with data independent acquisition mode and deconvolution: Characterization of metabolites of Uncaria rhynchophylla in rat plasma as a case

The importance to clarify the drug metabolites is beyond doubt in view of their potential efficacy and safety. However, due to the complex matrix interference, relatively low content and the co-eluting effect, it is of a great challenge to comprehensively and systematically characterize the metabolites in vivo, especially for the traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) due to the numerous types of components. In the present study, a comprehensive off-line two-dimensional separation system combining with data independent acquisition (DIA) mode and multi-dimensional data deconvolution method was established for chromatographic separation, data acquisition and data procession of indole alkaloids in rat plasma after intragastrically administrated with the extract of Uncaria rhynchophylla at the dose of 1 g/kg. The orthogonality of the off-line 2D separation system consisting of HILIC for first-dimensional separation and the PRLC for second-dimensional separation was valuated with the "asterisk" equations, and the results showed that off-line 2D separation system had passable orthogonality (A₀ = 53.3%). Furthermore, the DIA mode was applied to capture MS/MS spectra in view of its advantage in acquiring MS data, and an effective multi-dimensional deconvolution method integrating the calculation of chemical formula, the extraction of diagnostic ion, the filter of ring double bond (RDB) and the judgement of neutral loss was established to parse the spectra for the complicated DIA data for comprehensive analysis of metabolites in rat plasma. Ultimately, a total of 127 indole alkaloids were tentatively characterized, and the main metabolic pathways were inferred as demethylation, dehydrogenation, hydroxylation and deglycosylation. The off-line two-dimensional separation system was applied for the comprehensive characterization of metabolites in vivo for the first time. This study suggested a new approach to enable the enrichment, separation and analysis of the low content components in vivo.

Ginsenosides in Panax genus and their biosynthesis

Ginsenosides are a series of glycosylated triterpenoids which belong to protopanaxadiol (PPD)-, protopanaxatriol (PPT)-, ocotillol (OCT)- and oleanane (OA)-type saponins known as active compounds of Panax genus. They are accumulated in plant roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. The content and composition of ginsenosides are varied in different ginseng species, and in different parts of a certain plant. In this review, we summarized the representative saponins structures, their distributions and the contents in nearly 20 Panax species, and updated the biosynthetic pathways of ginsenosides focusing on enzymes responsible for structural diversified ginsenoside biosynthesis. We also emphasized the transcription factors in ginsenoside biosynthesis and non-coding RNAs in the growth of Panax genus plants, and highlighted the current three major biotechnological applications for ginsenosides production. This review covered advances in the past four decades, providing more clues for chemical discrimination and assessment on certain ginseng plants, new perspectives for rational evaluation and utilization of ginseng resource, and potential strategies for production of specific ginsenosides.

Insight into chemical basis of traditional Chinese medicine based on the state-of-the-art techniques of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been an indispensable source of drugs for curing various human diseases. However, the inherent chemical diversity and complexity of TCM restricted the safety and efficacy of its usage. Over the past few decades, the combination of liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry has contributed greatly to the TCM qualitative analysis. And novel approaches have been continuously introduced to improve the analytical performance, including both the data acquisition methods to generate a large and informative dataset, and the data post-processing tools to extract the structure-related MS information. Furthermore, the fast-developing computer techniques and big data analytics have markedly enriched the data processing tools, bringing benefits of high efficiency and accuracy. To provide an up-to-date review of the latest techniques on the TCM qualitative analysis, multiple data-independent acquisition methods and data-dependent acquisition methods (precursor ion list, dynamic exclusion, mass tag, precursor ion scan, neutral loss scan, and multiple reaction monitoring) and post-processing techniques (mass defect filtering, diagnostic ion filtering, neutral loss filtering, mass spectral trees similarity filter, molecular networking, statistical analysis, database matching, etc.) were summarized and categorized. Applications of each technique and integrated analytical strategies were highlighted, discussion and future perspectives were proposed as well.

Characteristic Malonyl Ginsenosides from the Leaves of Panax notoginseng as Potential Quality Markers for Adulteration Detection

Due to the high price and limited supply of Panax notoginseng, a large number of samples adulterated with the leaves appear in the market. A group of new malonyl ginsenosides were exclusively detected in the P. notoginseng leaves (PNL). Targeted isolation of the malonyl ginsenosides was guided by UPLC-QDa MS. HRMS, 1D/2D NMR, and chemical methods were used for structural identification. A selected ion monitoring method was developed based on UPLC-QDa MS to detect the adulterations. In addition, the anti-inflammatory activities and the collision-induced dissociation features of the isolated saponins were studied. As a result, eight new 3-OH malonylated dammarane-type triterpene oligoglycosides (notoginsenosides L3-L10) were obtained from PNL. Adulteration with PNL can be easily detected with limit of detection as low as 0.06%. To sum up, the isolated ginsenosides can be used as quality markers for fraud detection, which will promote the quality control of the notoginseng products.

An enhanced strategy integrating offline superimposed two-dimensional separation with mass defect filter and diagnostic ion filter: Comprehensive characterization of steroid alkaloids in Fritillariae Pallidiflorae Bulbus as a case study

The inherent complexity of traditional Chinese medicines necessitates the application of multi-dimensional information to accomplish comprehensive profiling and confirmative identification of their chemical components. In this study, we display an enhanced strategy by integrating offline superimposed two-dimensional separation (S-2D-LC) with mass defect filter and diagnostic ion filter to comprehensively characterize the alkaloid composition of Fritillariae Pallidiflorae Bulbus (FPB). The superimposed HILIC × RP and UPCC × RP offline two-dimensional liquid chromatography system was constructed with superior orthogonality (R²=0.004 and R²=0.001) for chromatographic separation. In total, 70 fractions were collected after the first-dimensional chromatographic separation (HILIC and UPCC) and then analyzed by the second-dimensional reversed phase (RP) liquid chromatography coupled with Q-TOF/MS/MS in FAST DDA acquisition mode. A four-step interpretation strategy combining mass defect filter with diagnostic ion filter was developed to rapidly characterize alkaloids in Fritillaria species. Ultimately, a sum of 529 Fritillaria alkaloids were characterized from two botanical origins of FPB. The integrated strategy is practical to efficiently expose and comprehensively characterize more trace and isomeric components in complex herbal medicines.

"Force iteration molecular designing" strategy for the systematic characterization and discovery of new protostane triterpenoids from Alisma Rhizoma by UHPLC/LTQ-Orbitrap-MS

Comprehensive analysis and identification of chemical components are of great significance for evaluating the efficacy and safety of herbal medicines, as well as for drug exploitation and development. Here we developed a "force iteration molecular designing" strategy, by combing a database-based in-house software for a precursor ion list (PIL) and PIL-triggered collision-induced dissociation-MS² and high-energy C-trap dissociation-MS² (PIL-CID/MS²-HCD/MS²) on an LTQ-Orbitrap mass spectrometer, aiming for the systematic characterization and discovery of new protostane triterpenoids (PTs) from Alisma Rhizoma (AR). AR was a well-known herbal remedy widely used for diarrhea, but its systematic characterization and comparison between two botanical origins have not been reported. Firstly, in-house software was developed based on force iteration, to generate a PIL that contains 483 accurate precursor ions. Secondly, to facilitate the acquisition of rich fragments and diagnostic ions sufficient for the structural elucidation of different types of PTs, a hybrid data acquisition method, namely PIL-CID/MS²-HCD/MS², was generated. Thirdly, a total of 473 PTs were rapidly characterized from two botanical origins of AR according to an established four-step interpretation method, and the common constituents were 277 with ratio 70% (277/395) and 78% (277/355) in the rhizome of Alisma plantago-aquatica and A. orientale, respectively. Finally, two new PTs were isolated and unambiguously identified by NMR verifying the feasibility of this combined data acquisition strategy. This integrated strategy could improve the efficiency in the detection of new compounds in a single run and is practical to comprehensively characterize the complex components in herbal medicines.

An integrated strategy for comprehensive characterization of metabolites and metabolic profiles of bufadienolides from Venenum Bufonis in rats

Comprehensive characterization of metabolites and metabolic profiles in plasma has considerable significance in determining the efficacy and safety of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in vivo. However, this process is usually hindered by the insufficient characteristic fragments of metabolites, ubiquitous matrix interference, and complicated screening and identification procedures for metabolites. In this study, an effective strategy was established to systematically characterize the metabolites, deduce the metabolic pathways, and describe the metabolic profiles of bufadienolides isolated from Venenum Bufonis in vivo. The strategy was divided into five steps. First, the blank and test plasma samples were injected into an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/linear trap quadrupole-orbitrap-mass spectrometry (MS) system in the full scan mode continuously five times to screen for valid matrix compounds and metabolites. Second, an extension-mass defect filter model was established to obtain the targeted precursor ions of the list of bufadienolide metabolites, which reduced approximately 39% of the interfering ions. Third, an acquisition model was developed and used to trigger more tandem MS (MS/MS) fragments of precursor ions based on the targeted ion list. The acquisition mode enhanced the acquisition capability by approximately four times than that of the regular data-dependent acquisition mode. Fourth, the acquired data were imported into Compound Discoverer software for identification of metabolites with metabolic network prediction. The main in vivo metabolic pathways of bufadienolides were elucidated. A total of 147 metabolites were characterized, and the main biotransformation reactions of bufadienolides were hydroxylation, dihydroxylation, and isomerization. Finally, the main prototype bufadienolides in plasma at different time points were determined using LC-MS/MS, and the metabolic profiles were clearly identified. This strategy could be widely used to elucidate the metabolic profiles of TCM preparations or Chinese patent medicines in vivo and provide critical data for rational drug use.

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Extension-mass defect filter model could reduce about 39% interfering ions.

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The optimized acquisition mode enhanced about 4 times acquisition capability than regular DDA mode.

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147 metabolites were characterized with metabolic network prediction, and the metabolic pathways were deduced in plasmas.

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The quantitative method of 14 prototypes was established by LC-MS/MS for metabolic profiles study.

Advances on hormone-like activity of Panax ginseng and ginsenosides

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been paid much attentions due to the prevention and treatment of steroid hormone disorders. Ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (Araliaceae), is one of the most valuable herbs in complementary and alternative medicines around the world. A series of dammarane triterpenoid saponins, also known as phytosteroids, were reported as the primary ingredients of Ginseng, and indicated broad spectral pharmacological actions, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammation and anti-fatigue. The skeletons of the dammarane triterpenoid aglycone are structurally similar to the steroid hormones. Both in vitro and in vivo studies showed that Ginseng and its active ingredients have beneficial hormone-like role in hormonal disorders. This review thus summarizes the structural similarities between hormones and dammarane ginsenosides and integrates the analogous effect of Ginseng and ginsenosides on prevention and treatment of hormonal disorders published in recent twenty years (1998-2018). The review may provide convenience for anticipate structure-function relationship between saponins structure and hormone-like effect.

An integrated strategy toward comprehensive characterization and quantification of multiple components from herbal medicine: An application study in Gelsemium elegans

Objective

To develop a powerful integrated strategy based on liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) systems for the comprehensive characterization and quantification of multiple components of herbal medicines.

Methods

Firstly, different mobile phase additives, analysis time, and MS acquisition modes were orthogonally tested with liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF/MS) in order to detect as many components of Gelsemium elegans as possible with high peak intensity. Secondly, several data mining strategies, including database searching, diagnostic ion filtering and neutral loss filtering, were utilized to perform chemical profiling. Subsequently, this study focused on the quantification and validation of the performance of a liquid chromatography-triple mass spectrometry (LC-QqQ/MS) assay based on derivative multiple reaction monitoring (DeMRM).

Results

A total of 147 components from G. elegans were characterized, among them 116 nontarget components were reported for the first time. A sensitive and reproducible LC-QqQ/MS method was successfully developed and validated for the simultaneous relative quantification of 41 components of G. elegans. This LC-QqQ/MS method was then applied to compare the contents of components in the roots, stems and leaves.

Conclusion

The present integrated strategy would significantly contribute to chemical studies on herbal medicine, and its utility could be extended to other research fields, such as metabolomics, quality control, and pharmacokinetics.

Offline two-dimensional liquid chromatography coupled with ion mobility-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry enabling four-dimensional separation and characterization of the multicomponents from white ginseng and red ginseng

Inherent complexity of plant metabolites necessitates the use of multi-dimensional information to accomplish comprehensive profiling and confirmative identification. A dimension-enhanced strategy, by offline two-dimensional liquid chromatography/ion mobility-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (2D-LC/IM-QTOF-MS) enabling four-dimensional separations (2D-LC, IM, and MS), is proposed. In combination with in-house database-driven automated peak annotation, this strategy was utilized to characterize ginsenosides simultaneously from white ginseng (WG) and red ginseng (RG). An offline 2D-LC system configuring an Xbridge Amide column and an HSS T3 column showed orthogonality 0.76 in the resolution of ginsenosides. Ginsenoside analysis was performed by data-independent high-definition MSE (HDMSE) in the negative ESI mode on a Vion™ IMS-QTOF hybrid high-resolution mass spectrometer, which could better resolve ginsenosides than MSE and directly give the CCS information. An in-house ginsenoside database recording 504 known ginsenosides and 58 reference compounds, was established to assist the identification of ginsenosides. Streamlined workflows, by applying UNIFI™ to automatedly annotate the HDMSE data, were proposed. We could separate and characterize 323 ginsenosides (including 286 from WG and 306 from RG), and 125 thereof may have not been isolated from the Panax genus. The established 2D-LC/IM-QTOF-HDMSE approach could also act as a magnifier to probe differentiated components between WG and RG. Compared with conventional approaches, this dimension-enhanced strategy could better resolve coeluting herbal components and more efficiently, more reliably identify the multicomponents, which, we believe, offers more possibilities for the systematic exposure and confirmative identification of plant metabolites.

A holistic strategy for discovering structural analogues of drug residues in meat using characteristic structural fragments filtering by high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry

A holistic strategy for discovering structural analogs was established using characteristic structural fragments filtering by high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry and successfully employed for discovering potential hazards in meat. The mass spectrometry fragmentation mechanisms of 113 compounds (including sulphonamides, tetracyclines, benzimidazoles, steroid hormones, cephalosporins, β-blockers) were investigated and a new strategy for screening of characteristic fragment ions was proposed. To process the data acquired by two scan modes, firstly an integrated filtering strategy was conducted to facilitate the characterisation of multi-class drugs. The integrated filtering strategy was applied to reduce interference in the raw data, which could help extracting the MS1 characteristics of the homolog-type chemical substances and expand the screening of the compounds as effectively as possible. This strategy was based on a combination of nitrogen rule, neutral loss and multiple characteristic fragment ions filtering. The method was validated by rapid screening and identification of targeted compounds in spiked samples. Particularly, the successful detection of several new compounds indicated that this strategy had significant advantages over individual filtration methods and could be a promising method for screening and identifying newly homolog-type drug residues in complex samples.

Advances in Saponin Diversity of Panax ginseng

Ginsenosides are the major bioactive constituents of Panax ginseng, which have pharmacological effects. Although there are several reviews in regards to ginsenosides, new ginsenosides have been detected continually in recent years. This review updates the ginsenoside list from P. ginseng to 170 by the end of 2019, and aims to highlight the diversity of ginsenosides in multiple dimensions, including chemical structure, tissue spatial distribution, time, and isomeride. Protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol and C17 side-chain varied (C17SCV) manners are the major types of ginsenosides, and the constitute of ginsenosides varied significantly among different parts. Only 16 ginsenosides commonly exist in all parts of a ginseng plant. Protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside is dominant in root, rhizome, leaf, stem, and fruit, whereas malonyl- and C17SCV-type ginsenosides occupy a greater proportion in the flower and flower bud compared with other parts. In respects of isomeride, there are 69 molecular formulas corresponding to 170 ginsenosides, and the median of isomers is 2. This is the first review on diversity of ginsenosides, providing information for reasonable utilization of whole ginseng plant, and the perspective on studying the physiological functions of ginsenoside for the ginseng plant itself is also proposed.

A mass spectrometry database for identification of saponins in plants

Saponins constitute an important class of secondary metabolites of the plant kingdom. Here, we present a mass spectrometry-based database for rapid and easy identification of saponins henceforth referred to as saponin mass spectrometry database (SMSD). With a total of 4196 saponins, 214 of which were obtained from commercial sources. Through liquid chromatography-tandem high-resolution/mass spectrometry (HR/MS) analysis under negative ion mode, the fragmentation behavior for all parent fragment ions almost conformed to successive losses of sugar moieties, α-dissociation and McLafferty rearrangement of aglycones in high-energy collision induced dissociation. The saccharide moieties produced sugar fragment ions from m/z (monosaccharide) to m/z (polysaccharides). The parent and sugar fragment ions of other saponins were predicted using the above mentioned fragmentation pattern. The SMSD is freely accessible at http://47.92.73.208:8082/ or http://cpu-smsd.com (preferrably using google). It provides three search modes ("CLASSIFY", "SEARCH" and "METABOLITE"). Under the "CLASSIFY" function, saponins are classified with high predictive accuracies from all metabolites by establishment of logistic regression model through their mass data from HR/MS input as a csv file, where the first column is ID and the second column is mass. For the "SEARCH" function, saponins are searched against parent ions with certain mass tolerance in "MS Ion Search". Then, daughter ions with certain mass tolerance are input into "MS/MS Ion Search". The optimal candidates were screened out according to the match count and match rate values in comparison with fragment data in database. Additionally, another logistic regression model completely differentiated between parent and sugar fragment ions. This function designed in front web is conducive to search and recheck. With the "METABOLITE" function, saponins are searched using their common names, where both full and partial name searches are supported. With these modes, saponins of diverse chemical composition can be explored, grouped and identified with a high degree of predictive accuracy. This specialized database would aid in the identification of saponins in complex matrices particular in the study of traditional Chinese medicines or plant metabolomics.