Electrochemical determination of atypical antipsychotic drug quetiapine using nano-molecularly imprinted polymer modified carbon paste electrode

Nanomaterial-Based Sensors for Coumarin Detection

Sensors are widely used owing to their advantages including excellent sensing performance, user-friendliness, portability, rapid response, high sensitivity, and specificity. Sensor technologies have been expanded rapidly in recent years to offer many applications in medicine, pharmaceuticals, the environment, food safety, and national security. Various nanomaterial-based sensors have been developed for their exciting features, such as a powerful absorption band in the visible region, excellent electrical conductivity, and good mechanical properties. Natural and synthetic coumarin derivatives are attracting attention in the development of functional polymers and polymeric networks for their unique biological, optical, and photochemical properties. They are the most abundant organic molecules in medicine because of their biological and pharmacological impacts. Furthermore, coumarin derivatives can modulate signaling pathways that affect various cellular processes. This review covers the discovery of coumarins and their derivatives, the integration of nanomaterial-based sensors, and recent advances in nanomaterial-based sensing for coumarins. This review also explains how sensors work, their types, their pros and cons, and sensor studies for coumarin detection in recent years.

Biosensing Platforms for Cardiac Biomarker Detection

Myocardial infarction (MI) is a cardiovascular disease that occurs when there is an elevated demand for myocardial oxygen as a result of the rupture or erosion of atherosclerotic plaques. Globally, the mortality rates associated with MI are steadily on the rise. Traditional diagnostic biomarkers employed in clinical settings for MI diagnosis have various drawbacks, prompting researchers to investigate fast, precise, and highly sensitive biosensor platforms and technologies. Biosensors are analytical devices that combine biological elements with physicochemical transducers to detect and quantify specific compounds or analytes. These devices play a crucial role in various fields including healthcare, environmental monitoring, food safety, and biotechnology. Biosensors developed for the detection of cardiac biomarkers are typically electrochemical, mass, and optical biosensors. Nanomaterials have emerged as revolutionary components in the field of biosensing, offering unique properties that significantly enhance the sensitivity and specificity of the detection systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the advancements and applications of nanomaterial-based biosensing systems. Beginning with an exploration of the fundamental principles governing nanomaterials, we delve into their diverse properties, including but not limited to electrical, optical, magnetic, and thermal characteristics. The integration of these nanomaterials as transducers in biosensors has paved the way for unprecedented developments in analytical techniques. Moreover, the principles and types of biosensors and their applications in cardiovascular disease diagnosis are explained in detail. The current biosensors for cardiac biomarker detection are also discussed, with an elaboration of the pros and cons of existing platforms and concluding with future perspectives.

The Effect of Polymerization Techniques on the Creation of Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Sensors and Their Application on Pharmaceutical Compounds

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have become more prevalent in fabricating sensor applications, particularly in medicine, pharmaceuticals, food quality monitoring, and the environment. The ease of their preparation, adaptability of templates, superior affinity and specificity, improved stability, and the possibility for downsizing are only a few benefits of these sensors. Moreover, from a medical perspective, monitoring therapeutic medications and determining pharmaceutical compounds in their pharmaceutical forms and biological systems is very important. Additionally, because medications are hazardous to the environment, effective, quick, and affordable determination in the surrounding environment is of major importance. Concerning a variety of performance criteria, including sensitivity, specificity, low detection limits, and affordability, MIP sensors outperform other published technologies for analyzing pharmaceutical drugs. MIP sensors have, therefore, been widely used as one of the most crucial techniques for analyzing pharmaceuticals. The first part of this review provides a detailed explanation of the many polymerization techniques that were employed to create high-performing MIP sensors. In the subsequent section of the review, the utilization of MIP-based sensors for quantifying the drugs in their pharmaceutical preparation, biological specimens, and environmental samples are covered in depth. Finally, a critical evaluation of the potential future research paths for MIP-based sensors clarifies the use of MIP in pharmaceutical fields.

Quetiapine Fumarate: A Review of Analytical Methods

Atypical antipsychotics are newer second-generation antipsychotics with weak dopamine type 2 blocking but potent 5-HT2 antagonistic activity. They are considered first-line treatments for schizophrenia and gradually replace typical antipsychotics. Extrapyramidal side effects are minimal, and they tend to improve impaired cognitive function in psychotics. Quetiapine fumarate is an atypical antipsychotic drug used to treat schizophrenia, mania and depression in people with bipolar disorder combined with other drugs or alone. Quetiapine was developed in 1985 and approved for medical use in the USA in 1997. Thorough computer-aided literature, surveys revealed that numerous analytical methods were reported over the years. The present study reviews analytical methods with their validation parameters published during the last 22 years (1999-2021) either as a single entity or combination in dosage form, and determination from biological samples. Novel strategies for increasing separation quality, such as QbD analysis and green spectroscopy, were discovered during the evaluation, and this review can be utilized for further research reference.

Construction of a hydrophobic-hydrophilic open-droplet microfluidic chemosensor towards colorimetric/spectrophotometric recognition of quetiapine fumarate: a cost-benefit method for biomedical analysis using a smartphone

Quetiapine fumarate (QF) is used to treat a number of mental/emotional diseases, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and abrupt bouts of mania or depression linked to bipolar disorder. This antipsychotic medicine can be deadly if an overdose is given to a person. Therefore, the sensitive identification of QF in bodily fluids is very important. In this study, an innovative low-cost colorimetric chemosensor based on silver nanoprism transfiguration in a phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)/Cl^- matrix was developed and successfully tested for the recognition of QF in human-exhaled breath condensate. Using this non-invasive colorimetric chemosensor, a broad linearity range of 0.001-1000 μM and a low limit of quantification of 0.001 μM for QF were attained. Notably, the proposed optical chemosensor is capable of detecting QF from a minimum amount of sample [500 μM in PBS and 0.001 μM in exhaled breath condensate] in the first few seconds of reaction by the naked eye. So, a rapid colorimetric assay for the on-site analysis of QF was developed and validated. Moreover, for the first time, a semi-analytical method was introduced that can provide a rough estimation of the QF concentration. This colorimetric system was, for the first time, integrated in an optimized microfluidic paper-based colorimetric device (μPCD), promising the development of an engineered colorimetric opto-sensor toward real-time and therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) assay of drugs in real-world samples.

Molecular imprinting-based sensors: Lab-on-chip integration and biomedical applications

The innovative technology of a marketable lab-on-a-chip platform for point-of-care (POC) in vitro detection has recently attracted remarkable attention. The POC tests can significantly enhance the high standard of medicinal care. In the last decade, clinical diagnostic technology has been broadly advanced and successfully performed in several areas. It seems that lab-on-a-chip approaches play a significant role in these technologies. However, high-cost and time-consuming methods are increasing the challenge and the development of a cost-effective, rapid and efficient method for the detection of biomolecules is urgently needed. Recently, polymer-coated sensing platforms have been a promising area that can be employed in medical diagnosis, pharmaceutical bioassays, and environmental monitoring. The designed on-chip sensors are based on molecular imprinting polymers (MIPs) that use label-free detection technology. Molecular imprinting shines out as a potentially promising technique for creating artificial recognition material with molecular recognition sites. MIPs provide unique advantages such as excellent recognition specificity, high selectivity, and good reusability. This review article aims to define several methods using molecular imprinting for biomolecules and their incorporation with several lab-on-chip technologies to describe the most promising methods for the development of sensing systems based on molecularly imprinted polymers. The higher selectivity, more user-friendly operation is believed to provide MIP-based lab-on-a-chip devices with great potential academic and commercial value in on-site clinical diagnostics and other point-of-care assays.

Application of the oxycodone templated molecular imprinted polymer in adsorption of the drug from human blood plasma as the real biological environment; a joint experimental and density functional theory study

In this project, we have synthesized and used a molecular imprinted polymer (MIP) for adsorption of oxycodone residue from the biological samples. Indeed, this study aims to develop a suitable method for determination of oxycodone drug residue in the human plasma using the common analysis methods. Therefore, the MIP was used for the solid phase extraction (MIP-SPE) approach in order to collect the oxycodone opioid and to concentrate it in the blood plasma samples. The extraction parameters such as adsorption time, pH, and the amount of sorbent in blood plasma were optimized and the capacity of loading amount (LA) for adsorbing it was determined. Moreover, a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-UV detector method was validated and used for analyzing of the mentioned opioid extracted from plasma. The results showed that the limit of detection (LOD), and the limit of quantization (LOQ) for the developed MIP-SPE method were 1.24 ppb, and 3.76 ppb, respectively. Moreover, both of the MIP-, and non-imprinted polymers (NIP)-drug complexes were designed and were then optimized by the density functional theory (DFT) method. The results showed that the theoretical calculations supported the experimental data, confirming the favorability of adsorption of the drug by MIP compared to NIP.

Synthesis, evaluation of drug delivery potential, and the quantum chemical investigation on a molecular imprinted polymer for quetiapine antipsychotic; a joint experimental and density functional theory study

In this project, the quetiapine drug was used as the template for synthesis of a molecular imprinted polymer (MIP). The polymerization approach for preparation of this composite was precipitation, where methacrylic acid (MAA), ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA), and 2,2-azobisissobutyronitrile (AIBN) were used as the functional monomer, the cross-linker, and the initiator, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the diameter of the nanoparticles is about 70 nm. The adsorption rates of quetiapine to the MIP host were evaluated at different pHs, and the results showed that the highest adsorption values were obtained at pH = 7. Moreover, the kinetics of the adsorption process was detected to follow the Langmuir isotherm (R2 = 0.9926) and the pseudo-second-order kinetics (R2 = 0.9937). The results confirmed the high capability of the synthesized MIPs as pharmaceutical carriers for quetiapine. Furthermore, the kinetics of the drug release from the MIP follows the Higuchi model at the pHs of 5.8-6.8 and the Korsmeyer-Peppas model at the pHs of 1.2-5. Finally, in light of the density functional theory (DFT)-based quantum chemical descriptors, the polymer-quetiapine drug complex was designed and investigated. The results showed that there is a strong interaction between the host (polymer) and the guest (drug) due to several hydrogen bonds and other intermolecular (polar) interactions.

Recent Advances of Optical Sensors for Copper Ion Detection

A trace element copper (Cu2+) ion is the third most plentiful metal ion that necessary for all living organisms and playing a critical role in several processes. Nonetheless, according to cellular needs, deficient or excess Cu2+ ion cause various diseases. For all these reasons, optical sensors have been focused rapid Cu2+ ion detection in real-time with high selectivity and sensitivity. Optical sensors can measure fluorescence in the refractive index-adsorption from the relationships between light and matter. They have gained great attention in recent years due to the excellent advantages of simple and naked eye recognition, real-time detection, low cost, high specificity against analytes, a quick response, and the need for less complex equipment in analysis. This review aims to show the significance of Cu2+ ion detection and electively current trends in optical sensors. The integration of optical sensors with different systems, such as microfluidic systems, is mentioned, and their latest studies in medical and environmental applications also are depicted. Conclusions and future perspectives on these advances is added at the end of the review.

Multi-template molecularly imprinted polymer hybrid nanoparticles for selective analysis of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and analgesics in biological and pharmaceutical samples

The multi-template molecularly imprinted polymers reinforced with hybrid oxide nanoparticles were developed for the selective separation and determination of the trace level of naproxen (NPX), methocarbamol (MTH), and omeprazole (OMZ) simultaneously from biological and pharmaceutical samples. The polymers were constructed by magnetic core@shell molecularly imprinted polymer nanocomposite (Fe₃O₄/ZnO/CuO/MWCNT@MIP). An electrochemical sensor has been fabricated for this purpose. Fe₃O₄/ZnO/CuO/MWCNT nanocomposite was introduced to improve the electron transport capability and increase the sensor surface area, as well as enhance the electronic conductivity. The triple-template MIP-coated layer provides simultaneous selective identification of three analytes by using [Fe (CN)₆]^3-/4-as the redox probe. Electrochemical behavior of MTH, NPX, and OMZ on the modified electrode (Fe₃O₄/ZnO/CuO/MWCNT@MIP) by various techniques such as cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, and chronoamperometry was examined. The morphology of the modified and unmodified carbon paste electrodes was performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). The average crystal size for fabricated nanoparticles obtained by calculating the X-ray diffraction technique was 17 nm in the Scherer method. The particle size which was determined by SEM was 48 nm. Some electrochemical parameters such as the diffusion coefficient and electron transfer coefficient were determined. The effect of many variables such as the pH and scan rate was also investigated. Under optimal conditions, the sensor is designed in the linear range 5.0 nM-100 μM and 5.0 nM-100 μM and 1.0 nM-130 μM with a detection limit of 1.5 nM, 1.0 nM, and 0.7 nM for measurement OMZ, NPX, and MTH, respectively. The relative standard deviation (RSD) of the five measurements was 1.21%, 2.23%, and 2.56% for NPX, MTH, and OMZ. Finally, the designed sensor was successfully used for simultaneous detection of target analytes in the real samples; tablets, water samples, and biological samples.

Application of electrochemical sensors based on nanomaterials modifiers in the determination of antipsychotics

At present, the content of antipsychotics in samples is always analyzed by traditional detection methods, including mass spectrometry (MS), spectrophotometry, fluorescence, capillary electrophoresis (CE). However, conventional methods are cumbersome and complex, require a large sample volume, many pre-processing steps, long analysis cycles, expensive instruments, and need well-trained detection capabilities personnel. In addition, patients with schizophrenia require frequent and painful blood collection procedures, which adds additional treatment costs and time burdens. In view of these factors, electrochemical methods have become the most promising candidate technology for timely analysis due to their low cost, simple operation, excellent sensitivity and specificity. As we all know, nanomaterials play an extremely important role in electrochemical sensing applications. As the sensor modifiers, nanomaterials enable electrochemical analysis to overcome the time-consuming and labor-intensive shortcomings of traditional detection methods, and greatly reduce the research cost. Nanomaterials modified electrodes can be used as sensors to determine the concentration of antipsychotics in organisms quickly and accurately, which is a bright spot in the application of nanomaterials. The combination of different nanomaterials can even form a nanocomposite with a synergistic effect. This paper firstly reviews the application of nanomaterials-modified sensors on the basis of research in the past ten years, reviews the use of nanomaterial-modified sensors to quickly and accurately determine the concentration of antipsychotics in biological samples, and demonstrates a new idea of using nanomaterials sensors for drug monitoring and determination. At the end of this review, a brief overview is given of the limitations and the future prospects of nanomaterial sensors for the determination of antipsychotics concentrations.

Quantification of quetiapine fumarate based on electrochemical analysis by reduced graphene oxide modified nano-silica functionalized with polydopamine and gold nanostars: A novel pharmaceutical analysis strategy

Quetiapine fumarate (QF) is an antipsychotic drug that has been most widely prescribed as an antipsychotic. In this regard, sensitive recognition of QF in bodily fluids must be done accurately. In this work, an electrochemical sensor for QF detection was fabricated, using GNSs-PDA@SiO₂ modified rGO stabilized on glassy carbon electrode (GCE). According to the electrical nature of gold nanoparticles (GNPs), polydopamine (PDA), and its composition with nano-silica, the proposed hybrid material is able to enhance the electro-oxidation signals of QF towards its sensitive detection in complex biological media. The morphology of synthesized polymeric nanocomposites and various surfaces of electrodes were investigated using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) and Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) methods. Using the square wave voltammetry technique, the fabricated electrochemical sensor could detect QF in the linear range of 500 μM to 3 mM, which low limit of quantification (LLOQ) was obtained as 500 μM, indicating the sensor's appropriate sensitivity. For the first time, the application of novel hybrid material (GNSs-PDA@SiO₂ ) for pharmaceutical analysis in human plasma was studied using electrochemical sensor technology. Based on the obtained analytical results, engineered nano-surface led to entrapment and oxidation of QF in real samples. So, a novel and efficient method for the analysis of QF was designed and validated, which opens a new horizon for pharmaceutical analysis and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM).

Development of an Electrochemical Sensor Using a Modified Carbon Paste Electrode with Silver Nanoparticles Capped with Saffron for Monitoring Mephedrone

Mephedrone, also known as 4-methylmethcathinone, is growing into a prominent recreational drug for young people. When it came to detecting mephedrone, limited efforts were made using electrochemical sensors. As a result, this application depicts the fabrication of a new, sensitive, selective, and economical electrochemical sensor capable of detecting mephedrone by using silver nanoparticles capped with saffron produced through electropolymerization to modify carbon paste electrodes (CPEs). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were capped with saffron (AgNPs@Sa) using a green method. AgNPs@Sa were studied using electron scanning microscopy (SEM) and UV-vis spectroscopy. The sensor was evaluated under the optimum condition to determine its analytical features. The results showed that this procedure had a wide linear range, low detection limit and sufficient reproducibility. Furthermore, the sensor posed sufficient stability. Moreover, it was applied in the determination of mephedrone in urine samples, showing the potential applicability of this electrochemical sensor in real sample analysis.

Fully Integrated 3D-Printed Electronic Device for the On-Field Determination of Antipsychotic Drug Quetiapine

In this work, we developed a novel all-3D-printed device for the simple determination of quetiapine fumarate (QF) via voltammetric mode. The device was printed through a one-step process by a dual-extruder 3D printer and it features three thermoplastic electrodes (printed from a carbon black-loaded polylactic acid (PLA)) and an electrode holder printed from a non-conductive PLA filament. The integrated 3D-printed device can be printed on-field and it qualifies as a ready-to-use sensor, since it does not require any post-treatment (i.e., modification or activation) before use. The electrochemical parameters, which affect the performance of the sensor in QF determination, were optimized and, under the selected conditions, the quantification of QF was carried out in the concentration range of 5 × 10⁻⁷–80 × 10⁻⁷ mol × L⁻¹. The limit of detection was 2 × 10⁻⁹ mol × L⁻¹, which is lower than that of existing electrochemical QF sensors. The within-device and between-device reproducibility was 4.3% and 6.2% (at 50 × 10⁻⁷ mol × L⁻¹ QF level), respectively, demonstrating the satisfactory operational and fabrication reproducibility of the device. Finally, the device was successfully applied for the determination of QF in pharmaceutical tablets and in human urine, justifying its suitability for routine and on-site analysis.

Molecularly imprinted polymers in toxicology: a literature survey for the last 5 years

The science of toxicology dates back almost to the beginning of human history. Toxic chemicals, which are encountered in different forms, are always among the chemicals that should be investigated in criminal field, environmental application, pharmaceutic, and even industry, where many researches have been carried out studies for years. Almost all of not only drugs but also industrial dyes have toxic side and direct effects. Environmental micropollutants accumulate in the tissues of all living things, especially plants, and show short- or long-term toxic symptoms. Chemicals in forensic science can be known by detecting the effect they cause to the body with the similar mechanism. It is clear that the best tracking tool among analysis methods is molecularly printed polymer-based analytical setups. Different polymeric combinations of molecularly imprinted polymers allow further study on detection or extraction using chromatographic and spectroscopic instruments. In particular, methods used in forensic medicine can detect trace amounts of poison or biological residues on the scene. Molecularly imprinted polymers are still in their infancy and have many variables that need to be developed. In this review, we summarized how molecular imprinted polymers and toxicology intersect and what has been done about molecular imprinted polymers in toxicology by looking at the studies conducted in the last 5 years.