Presence of Trypanosoma cruzi in pregnant women and typing of lineages in congenital cases

New insights into Trypanosoma cruzi genetic diversity, and its influence on parasite biology and clinical outcomes

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, remains a serious public health problem worldwide. The parasite was subdivided into six distinct genetic groups, called "discrete typing units" (DTUs), from TcI to TcVI. Several studies have indicated that the heterogeneity of T. cruzi species directly affects the diversity of clinical manifestations of Chagas disease, control, diagnosis performance, and susceptibility to treatment. Thus, this review aims to describe how T. cruzi genetic diversity influences the biology of the parasite and/or clinical parameters in humans. Regarding the geographic dispersion of T. cruzi, evident differences were observed in the distribution of DTUs in distinct areas. For example, TcII is the main DTU detected in Brazilian patients from the central and southeastern regions, where there are also registers of TcVI as a secondary T. cruzi DTU. An important aspect observed in previous studies is that the genetic variability of T. cruzi can impact parasite infectivity, reproduction, and differentiation in the vectors. It has been proposed that T. cruzi DTU influences the host immune response and affects disease progression. Genetic aspects of the parasite play an important role in determining which host tissues will be infected, thus heavily influencing Chagas disease's pathogenesis. Several teams have investigated the correlation between T. cruzi DTU and the reactivation of Chagas disease. In agreement with these data, it is reasonable to suppose that the immunological condition of the patient, whether or not associated with the reactivation of the T. cruzi infection and the parasite strain, may have an important role in the pathogenesis of Chagas disease. In this context, understanding the genetics of T. cruzi and its biological and clinical implications will provide new knowledge that may contribute to additional strategies in the diagnosis and clinical outcome follow-up of patients with Chagas disease, in addition to the reactivation of immunocompromised patients infected with T. cruzi.

Effects of Acute and Chronic Trypanosoma cruzi Infection on Pregnancy Outcomes in Mice: Parasite Transmission, Mortality, Delayed Growth, and Organ Damage in Pups

Chagas disease is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. This study aimed to determine the effects of T. cruzi infection on fertility rate and health of the newborn pups in pregnant mice. Female mice were challenged with T. cruzi and mated at 21 days (acute parasitemic phase) or 90 days (chronic parasite persistence phase) after infection. Pups were examined for growth up to 20 days after birth; and parasite burden in brain, heart, skeletal muscle, and intestine was measured by real-time quantitative PCR. The inflammatory infiltrate, necrosis, and fibrosis in pups' heart and brain tissues were evaluated by histology. T. cruzi infection in dams delayed the onset of pregnancy, decreased the fertility rate, and led to vertical transmission of parasite to the pups. Furthermore, infected dams delivered pups that exhibited decreased survival rate, decreased birth weight, and decreased growth rate. Significantly increased inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis of cardiac and brain tissues were noted in pups born to infected dams. Initial challenge with higher parasite dose had more detrimental effects on fertility rate and pups' health in both acutely and chronically infected dams. In conclusion, mice offer a promising model to evaluate the efficacy of new vaccines and therapeutic drugs in controlling the acute and chronic maternal T. cruzi infection and congenital transmission to newborns, and in improving the fertility rate and pups' health outcomes.

Estimation of the morbidity and mortality of congenital Chagas disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Chagas disease is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi which can be transmitted from mother to baby during pregnancy. There is no consensus on the proportion of infected infants with clinical signs of congenital Chagas disease (cCD). The objective of this systematic review is to determine the burden of cCD. Articles from journal inception to 2020 reporting morbidity and mortality associated with cCD were retrieved from academic search databases. Observational studies, randomized-control trials, and studies of babies diagnosed with cCD were included. Studies were excluded if they were case reports or series, without original data, case-control without cCD incidence estimates, and/or did not report number of participants. Two reviewers screened articles for inclusion. To determine pooled proportion of infants with cCD with clinical signs, individual clinical signs, and case-fatality, random effects meta-analysis was performed. We identified 4,531 records and reviewed 4,301, including 47 articles in the narrative summary and analysis. Twenty-eight percent of cCD infants showed clinical signs (95% confidence interval (CI) = 19.0%, 38.5%) and 2.2% of infants died (95% CI = 1.3%, 3.5%). The proportion of infected infants with hepatosplenomegaly was 12.5%, preterm birth 6.0%, low birth weight 5.8%, anemia 4.9%, and jaundice 4.7%. Although most studies did not include a comparison group of non-infected infants, the proportion of infants with cCD with clinical signs at birth are comparable to those with congenital toxoplasmosis (10.0%-30.0%) and congenital cytomegalovirus (10.0%-15.0%). We conclude that cCD burden appears significant, but more studies comparing infected mother-infant dyads to non-infected ones are needed to determine an association of this burden to cCD.

Emerging and reemerging forms of Trypanosoma cruzi transmission

This review aims to update and discuss the main challenges in controlling emergent and reemergent forms of Trypanosoma cruzi transmission through organ transplantation, blood products and vertical transmission in endemic and non-endemic areas as well as emergent forms of transmission in endemic countries through contaminated food, currently representing the major cause of acute illness in several countries. As a neglected tropical disease potentially controllable with a major impact on morbimortality and socioeconomic aspects, Chagas disease (CD) was approved at the WHO global plan to interrupt four transmission routes by 2030 (vector/blood transfusion/organ transplant/congenital). Implementation of universal or target screening for CD are highly recommended in blood banks of non-endemic regions; in organ transplants donors in endemic/non-endemic areas as well as in women at risk from endemic areas (reproductive age women/pregnant women-respective babies). Moreover, main challenges for surveillance are the application of molecular methods for identification of infected babies, donor transmitted infection and of live parasites in the food. In addition, the systematic recording of acute/non-acute cases and transmission sources is crucial to establish databases for control and surveillance purposes. Remarkably, antiparasitic treatment of infected reproductive age women and infected babies is essential for the elimination of congenital CD by 2030.

Trypanosoma cruzi-infected triatomines and rodents co-occur in a coastal island of northern Chile

Trypanosoma cruzi, the cause agent of Chagas disease, is transmitted mainly by blood-feeding insects of the subfamily Triatominae. The T. cruzi life cycle alternates between triatomines and mammalian hosts, excluding birds and reptiles. Triatomines of Mepraia genus are wild vectors of T. cruzi in Chile. Mepraia specimens infected with T. cruzi have been detected in Pan de Azúcar and Santa María islands. The most common vertebrates that inhabit these islands are birds and reptiles, and it is unknown whether small mammals are present. Consequently, it is relevant to know whether there are any T. cruzi-infected small mammals on those islands to elucidate the T. cruzi cycle. To clarify this crossroads, islands of northern Chile were explored to determine if T. cruzi-infected triatomines and rodents co-occur in islands of northern Chile. T. cruzi DNA was detected by conventional and real-time PCR in three islands: on Santa María and Pan de Azúcar islands T. cruzi was detected in Mepraia sp samples, while on Pan de Azúcar (6.1%) and Damas islands (15%) was detected in the rodent Abrothrix olivacea. We show for the first time in Chile the occurrence of insular rodents infected with T. cruzi, and a complete T. cruzi life cycle in a coastal island. Our results provide new insights to understand the T. cruzi infection in the wild cycle.

Higher congenital transmission rate of Trypanosoma cruzi associated with family history of congenital transmission

INTRODUCTION:

Congenital transmission (CT) of Trypanosoma cruzi has led to globalization of Chagas disease and its growing relevance as a public health problem. Although the occurrence of CT has been associated with several factors, its mechanisms are still unknown. This study aimed to analyze the geographical and familiar variables of mothers and their association with CT of Chagas disease in a population living in non-endemic areas of Argentina for the last decades.

METHODS:

We developed a retrospective cohort study in a sample of 2120 mother-child pairs who attended three reference centers in the cities of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, and Salta between 2002 and 2015.

RESULTS:

The highest CT rates were observed in children born to Argentinean mothers (10.7%) and in children born to mothers from Buenos Aires (11.7%). Considering the areas of origin of the mothers, those from areas of null-low risk for vector-borne infection had higher CT rates than those from areas of medium-high risk (11.1% vs 8.2%). We also observed a significant intra-familiar “cluster effect,” with CT rates of 35.9% in children with an infected sibling, compared to 8.2% in children without infected siblings (RR=4.4 95% CI 2.3-8.4).

CONCLUSIONS:

The associations observed suggest a higher CT rate in children born to mothers who acquired the infection congenitally, with familiar antecedents, and from areas without the presence of vectors. These observations are considered new epidemiological evidence about Chagas disease in a contemporary urban population, which may contribute to the study of CT and may also be an interesting finding for healthcare professionals.

Serum IL-10 Levels and Its Relationship with Parasitemia in Chronic Chagas Disease Patients

It is known that the immunoregulatory networks in human Chagas disease play a key role in parasitemia control during the acute phase. However, little is known regarding the control of parasitemia during the chronic phase. The aim of the study was to describe the serum cytokine profile of Trypanosoma cruzi chronically infected patients and to evaluate its relationship with the presence or absence of parasitemia in peripheral blood. This is a prospective observational study where adult Chagas disease patients were included. Patients previously treated for Chagas disease, pregnant women, and immunosuppressed patients were excluded. Demographic and clinical information was collected, and T. cruzi real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and serum cytokine profile were determined in peripheral blood. Forty-five patients were included. Trypanosoma cruzi RT-PCR in peripheral blood resulted positive in 19 (42.2%) patients. No differences in the serum cytokine profile were found depending on cardiac or digestive involvement. However, patients with positive T. cruzi RT-PCR had a higher median concentration of IL-10 and IL-1beta and a lower median concentration of IL-8 than those with negative T. cruzi PCR. These results reinforce the key role that this anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) plays in parasitemia control.

Epidemiology and pathogenesis of maternal-fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi and a case for vaccine development against congenital Chagas disease

Trypanos o ma cruzi (T. cruzi or Tc) is the causative agent of Chagas disease (CD). It is common for patients to suffer from non-specific symptoms or be clinically asymptomatic with acute and chronic conditions acquired through various routes of transmission. The expecting women and their fetuses are vulnerable to congenital transmission of Tc. Pregnant women face formidable health challenges because the frontline antiparasitic drugs, benznidazole and nifurtimox, are contraindicated during pregnancy. However, it is worthwhile to highlight that newborns can be cured if they are diagnosed and given treatment in a timely manner. In this review, we discuss the pathogenesis of maternal-fetal transmission of Tc and provide a justification for the investment in the development of vaccines against congenital CD.

Human infectiousness and parasite load in chronic patients seropositive for Trypanosoma cruzi in a rural area of the Argentine Chaco

A key parameter in the transmission of vector-borne infections, including Chagas disease, is the ability of the different host species to transmit the parasite to the vector (infectiousness). Here, we determined infectiousness to the vector of Trypanosoma cruzi-seropositive humans examined by artificial xenodiagnosis (XD), established its relationship with T. cruzi DNA levels (a surrogate of intensity of parasitemia) quantified by real-time PCR (qPCR), and assessed whether infectiousness was associated with the body mass index (BMI), age, ethnic background and parasite genotype. XD was performed to 117 T. cruzi-seropositive residents from Pampa del Indio and parasite load was quantified in 81 of them. Using optical microscopy (OM) 33.6% of the seropositive people tested were infectious and this fraction nearly doubled (66.0%) when XD triatomines were examined by kDNA-PCR. The mean infectiousness (defined as the percentage of all infected triatomines detected by OM at any time point among the total number of insects examined by OM 30 days post-feeding) was 5.2%, and the mean parasite load was 0.51 parasite equivalents per ml. Infectiousness to the vector was associated negatively with age and BMI, and positively with the detection of parasitemia by kDNA-PCR, and parasite load by qPCR in bivariate analysis. Patients with a positive XD by OM exhibited a significantly higher mean parasite load. Using multiple regression, infectiousness was associated with parasite load (positively) and with the household presence of T. infestans and Qom ethnic group (negatively); no significant association was observed with age or its interaction with ethnicity. We did not find significant associations between identified DTUs and infectiousness or parasite load. Infectiousness was aggregated: 18% of the people examined by XD generated 80% of the infected triatomines. Detecting and treating the super-infectious fraction of the infected human would disproportionally impact on domestic transmission risks. Nonetheless, treatment of all eligible infected people who meet the inclusion criteria regardless of their parasitemia should be ensured to improve their prognosis.

Phylogenetic Analysis of Trypanosoma cruzi from Pregnant Women and Newborns from Argentina, Honduras, and Mexico Suggests an Association of Parasite Haplotypes with Congenital Transmission of the Parasite

Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, exhibits a high genetic variability and has been classified into six discrete typing units (DTUs) named TcI through TcVI. This genetic diversity is believed to be associated with clinical characteristics and outcomes, but evidence supporting such associations has been limited. Herein, we performed a phylogenetic analysis of T. cruzi sequences of the mini-exon intergenic region obtained from a large cohort of pregnant women and newborns from Argentina, Honduras, and Mexico, to assess parasite genetic diversity and possible associations with congenital transmission. Analysis of 105 samples (including five paired samples) from maternal and umbilical cord blood indicated that T. cruzi DTU distribution was similar among pregnant women and newborns from these three countries, with a high frequency of TcII-TcV-TcVI DTUs, including mixed infections with TcI. However, phylogenetic analysis revealed that although the same parasite haplotypes circulated in these three countries, they were present at different frequencies, leading to significant geographic differences. Of importance, a strong association was observed between parasite haplotypes and congenital infection of newborns. Thus, the identification of parasite haplotypes in pregnant women, but not of parasite DTUs, may help predict congenital transmission of T. cruzi.

Some Limitations for Early Diagnosis of Congenital Chagas Infection by PCR

Trypanosoma cruzi, the causing agent of Chagas disease, can be transmitted to the offspring of infected pregnant women, thus being an epidemiologically important way of parasite transmission in humans. In addition, the migration of infected women from endemic areas to nonendemic countries may export this parasite infection. The diagnosis of congenital Chagas disease relies on the detection of the parasite because maternal antibodies are passively transferred to infants during pregnancy. The diagnosis of congenital infection can also be confirmed by detection of infant-specific anti-T cruzi antibodies at 10 months after delivery. Because early detection of T cruzi infection in newborns allows an efficient trypanocidal treatment and cure, more sensitive molecular techniques such as DNA amplification are being used for a prompt parasitological diagnosis of children born to seropositive mothers. In this report, we describe a diagnosis case of a child congenitally infected with T cruzi who tested negative for parasite detection both by microscopic observation and DNA amplification at 20 days and 6 months after delivery. However, at 7 months of age, a hemoculture was made from the infant's blood, and the infective parasite was finally isolated and classified as T cruzi discrete typing unit I. In a retrospective study, real-time polymerase chain reaction also allowed detecting the parasite but failed to detect any parasite load in earlier control samples. This case report stresses that even when molecular techniques are negative, a long-term follow-up is necessary for the diagnosis of infants congenitally infected with T cruzi.

Identification of Trypanosoma cruzi Discrete Typing Units (DTUs) in Latin-American migrants in Barcelona (Spain)

Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, is divided into six Discrete Typing Units (DTUs): TcI-TcVI. We aimed to identify T. cruzi DTUs in Latin-American migrants in the Barcelona area (Spain) and to assess different molecular typing approaches for the characterization of T. cruzi genotypes. Seventy-five peripheral blood samples were analyzed by two real-time PCR methods (qPCR) based on satellite DNA (SatDNA) and kinetoplastid DNA (kDNA). The 20 samples testing positive in both methods, all belonging to Bolivian individuals, were submitted to DTU characterization using two PCR-based flowcharts: multiplex qPCR using TaqMan probes (MTq-PCR), and conventional PCR. These samples were also studied by sequencing the SatDNA and classified as type I (TcI/III), type II (TcII/IV) and type I/II hybrid (TcV/VI). Ten out of the 20 samples gave positive results in the flowcharts: TcV (5 samples), TcII/V/VI (3) and mixed infections by TcV plus TcII (1) and TcV plus TcII/VI (1). By SatDNA sequencing, we classified the 20 samples, 19 as type I/II and one as type I. The most frequent DTU identified by both flowcharts, and suggested by SatDNA sequencing in the remaining samples with low parasitic loads, TcV, is common in Bolivia and predominant in peripheral blood. The mixed infection by TcV-TcII was detected for the first time simultaneously in Bolivian migrants. PCR-based flowcharts are very useful to characterize DTUs during acute infection. SatDNA sequence analysis cannot discriminate T. cruzi populations at the level of a single DTU but it enabled us to increase the number of characterized cases in chronically infected patients.

A local innate immune response against Trypanosoma cruzi in the human placenta: The epithelial turnover of the trophoblast

Congenital Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is partially responsible for the progressive globalization of Chagas disease despite of its low transmission rate. The probability of congenital transmission depends on complex interactions between the parasite, the maternal and fetus/newborn immune responses and placental factors, being the latter the least studied one. During transplacental transmission, the parasite must cross the placental barrier where the trophoblast, a continuous renewing epithelium, is the first tissue to have contact with the parasite. Importantly, the epithelial turnover is considered part of the innate immune system since pathogens, prior to cell invasion, must attach to the surface of cells. The trophoblast turnover involves cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation and apoptotic cell death, all of them are induced by the parasite. In the present review, we analyze the current evidence about the trophoblast epithelial turnover as a local placental innate immune response.

Human Polymorphisms in Placentally Expressed Genes and Their Association With Susceptibility to Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi Infection

BACKGROUND

It is currently unclear why only a proportion of children born to Trypanosoma cruzi-infected mothers acquire the infection. We have examined the association of 11 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located in genes coding for placental expression enzymes as genetic markers of susceptibility to congenital T. cruzi infection (hereafter, "congenital infection"): rs2014683 and rs1048988 in ALPP; rs11244787 and rs1871054 in ADAM12; rs243866, rs243865, rs17859821, rs243864, and rs2285053 in MMP2; and rs3918242 and rs2234681 in MMP9.

METHODS

Two groups of children born to mothers seropositive for T. cruzi were compared: 101 had congenital infection, and 116 were uninfected. Novel high-resolution melting and capillary electrophoresis genotyping techniques were designed and used.

RESULTS

Logistic regression analysis showed that mutations in rs11244787 and rs1871054 (in ADAM12) and rs243866, rs17859821, and rs2285053 (in MMP2) were associated with susceptibility to congenital infection. Multifactor dimensionality reduction revealed that genotyping results for rs11244787, rs1871054, rs243866, rs17859821 and rs243864 sites would be a good predictor of congenital infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest an important role of human polymorphisms in proteins involved in extracellular matrix remodeling and the immune response during congenital infection. To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the association between mutations in placentally expressed genes and susceptibility to congenital infection.

Landscape ecology of Trypanosoma cruzi in the southern Yucatan Peninsula

Landscape interactions of Trypanosoma cruzi (Tc) with Triatoma dimidiata (Td) depend on the presence and relative abundance of mammal hosts. This study analyzed a landscape adjacent to the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, composed of conserved areas, crop and farming areas, and the human community of Zoh Laguna with reported Chagas disease cases. Sylvatic mammals of the Chiroptera, Rodentia, and Marsupialia orders were captured, and livestock and pets were sampled along with T. dimidiata in all habitats. Infection by T. cruzi was analyzed using mtDNA markers, while lineage and DTU was analyzed using the mini-exon. 303 sylvatic specimens were collected, corresponding to 19 species during the rainy season and 114 specimens of 18 species during dry season. Five bats Artibeus jamaicensis, Artibeus lituratus, Sturnira lilium, Sturnira ludovici, Dermanura phaeotis (Dp) and one rodent Heteromys gaumeri were collected in the three habitats. All but Dp, and including Carollia brevicauda and Myotis keaysi, were infected with predominately TcI in the sylvatic habitat and TcII in the ecotone. Sigmodon hispidus was the rodent with the highest prevalence of infection by T. cruzi I and II in ecotone and domestic habitats. Didelphis viginiana was infected only with TcI in both domestic and sylvatic habitats; the only two genotyped human cases were TcII. Two main clades of T. cruzi, lineages I (DTU Ia) and II (DTU VI), were found to be sympatric (all habitats and seasons) in the Zoh-Laguna landscape, suggesting that no species-specific interactions occur between the parasite and any mammal host, in any habitat. We have also found mixed infections of the two principal T. cruzi clades in individuals across modified habitats, particularly in livestock and pets, and in both haplogroups of T. dimidiata. Results are contradictory to the dilution hypothesis, although we did find that most resilient species had an important role as T. cruzi hosts. Our study detected some complex trends in parasite transmission related to lineage sorting within the matrix. Intriguingly, TcIa is dominant in terrestrial small wildlife in the sylvatic habitat and is the only parasite DTU found in D. virginiana in the domestic habitat, although its frequency remained constant in sylvatic and ecotone vectors. Bats have a key role in TcVI dispersal from the sylvatic habitat, while dogs, sheep, and humans are drivers of TcVI between domestic and ecotone habitats. Overall, our results allow us to conclude that T. cruzi transmission is dependent on host availability within a highly permeable landscape in Zoh Laguna.

Congenital Chagas disease as an ecological model of interactions between Trypanosoma cruzi parasites, pregnant women, placenta and fetuses

The aim of this paper is to discuss the main ecological interactions between the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and its hosts, the mother and the fetus, leading to the transmission and development of congenital Chagas disease. One or several infecting strains of T. cruzi (with specific features) interact with: (i) the immune system of a pregnant woman whom responses depend on genetic and environmental factors, (ii) the placenta harboring its own defenses, and, finally, (iii) the fetal immune system displaying responses also susceptible to be modulated by maternal and environmental factors, as well as his own genetic background which is different from her mother. The severity of congenital Chagas disease depends on the magnitude of such final responses. The paper is mainly based on human data, but integrates also complementary observations obtained in experimental infections. It also focuses on important gaps in our knowledge of this congenital infection, such as the role of parasite diversity vs host genetic factors, as well as that of the maternal and placental microbiomes and the microbiome acquisition by infant in the control of infection. Investigations on these topics are needed in order to improve the programs aiming to diagnose, manage and control congenital Chagas disease.

Between a bug and a hard place: Trypanosoma cruzi genetic diversity and the clinical outcomes of Chagas disease

Over the last 30 years, concomitant with successful transnational disease control programs across Latin America, Chagas disease has expanded from a neglected, endemic parasitic infection of the rural poor to an urbanized chronic disease, and now a potentially emergent global health problem. Trypanosoma cruzi infection has a highly variable clinical course, ranging from complete absence of symptoms to severe and often fatal cardiovascular and/or gastrointestinal manifestations. To date, few correlates of clinical disease progression have been identified. Elucidating a putative role for T. cruzi strain diversity in Chagas disease pathogenesis is complicated by the scarcity of parasites in clinical specimens and the limitations of our contemporary genotyping techniques. This article systematically reviews the historical literature, given our current understanding of parasite genetic diversity, to evaluate the evidence for any association between T. cruzi genotype and chronic clinical outcome, risk of congenital transmission or reactivation and orally transmitted outbreaks.

Sustained Domestic Vector Exposure Is Associated With Increased Chagas Cardiomyopathy Risk but Decreased Parasitemia and Congenital Transmission Risk Among Young Women in Bolivia

BACKGROUND

We studied women and their infants to evaluate risk factors for congenital transmission and cardiomyopathy in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected women.

METHODS

Women provided data and blood for serology and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Infants of infected women had blood tested at 0 and 1 month by microscopy, PCR and immunoblot, and serology at 6 and 9 months. Women underwent electrocardiography (ECG).

RESULTS

Of 1696 women, 456 (26.9%) were infected; 31 (6.8%) transmitted T. cruzi to their infants. Women who transmitted had higher parasite loads than those who did not (median, 62.0 [interquartile range {IQR}, 25.8-204.8] vs 0.05 [IQR, 0-29.6]; P < .0001). Transmission was higher in twin than in singleton births (27.3% vs 6.4%; P = .04). Women who had not lived in infested houses transmitted more frequently (9.7% vs 4.6%; P = .04), were more likely to have positive results by PCR (65.5% vs 33.9%; P < .001), and had higher parasite loads than those who had lived in infested houses (median, 25.8 [IQR, 0-64.1] vs 0 [IQR, 0-12.3]; P < .001). Of 302 infected women, 28 (9.3%) had ECG abnormalities consistent with Chagas cardiomyopathy; risk was higher for older women (odds ratio [OR], 1.06 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.01-1.12] per year) and those with vector exposure (OR, 3.7 [95% CI, 1.4-10.2]). We observed a strong dose-response relationship between ECG abnormalities and reported years of living in an infested house.

CONCLUSIONS

We hypothesize that repeated vector-borne infection sustains antigen exposure and the consequent inflammatory response at a higher chronic level, increasing cardiac morbidity, but possibly enabling exposed women to control parasitemia in the face of pregnancy-induced Th2 polarization.

Deep sequencing of the Trypanosoma cruzi GP63 surface proteases reveals diversity and diversifying selection among chronic and congenital Chagas disease patients

Background

Chagas disease results from infection with the diploid protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. T. cruzi is highly genetically diverse, and multiclonal infections in individual hosts are common, but little studied. In this study, we explore T. cruzi infection multiclonality in the context of age, sex and clinical profile among a cohort of chronic patients, as well as paired congenital cases from Cochabamba, Bolivia and Goias, Brazil using amplicon deep sequencing technology.

Methodology/ Principal Findings

A 450bp fragment of the trypomastigote TcGP63I surface protease gene was amplified and sequenced across 70 chronic and 22 congenital cases on the Illumina MiSeq platform. In addition, a second, mitochondrial target—ND5—was sequenced across the same cohort of cases. Several million reads were generated, and sequencing read depths were normalized within patient cohorts (Goias chronic, n = 43, Goias congenital n = 2, Bolivia chronic, n = 27; Bolivia congenital, n = 20), Among chronic cases, analyses of variance indicated no clear correlation between intra-host sequence diversity and age, sex or symptoms, while principal coordinate analyses showed no clustering by symptoms between patients. Between congenital pairs, we found evidence for the transmission of multiple sequence types from mother to infant, as well as widespread instances of novel genotypes in infants. Finally, non-synonymous to synonymous (dn:ds) nucleotide substitution ratios among sequences of TcGP63Ia and TcGP63Ib subfamilies within each cohort provided powerful evidence of strong diversifying selection at this locus.

Conclusions/Significance

Our results shed light on the diversity of parasite DTUs within each patient, as well as the extent to which parasite strains pass between mother and foetus in congenital cases. Although we were unable to find any evidence that parasite diversity accumulates with age in our study cohorts, putative diversifying selection within members of the TcGP63I gene family suggests a link between genetic diversity within this gene family and survival in the mammalian host.

Trypanosoma cruzi, the causal agent of Chagas disease in Latin America, infects several million people in some of the most economically deprived regions of Latin America. T. cruzi infection is lifelong and has a variable prognosis: some patients never exhibit symptoms while others experience debilitating and fatal complications. Available data suggest that parasite genetic diversity within and among disease foci can be exceedingly high. However, little is know about the frequency of multiple genotype infections in humans, as well as their distribution among different age classes and possible impact on disease outcome. In this study we develop a next generation amplicon deep sequencing approach to profile parasite diversity within chronic Chagas Disease patients from Bolivia and Brazil. We were also able to compare parasite genetic diversity present in eleven congenitally infants with parasite genetic diversity present in their mothers. We did not detect any specific association between the number and diversity of parasite genotypes in each patient with their age, sex or disease status. We were, however, able to detect the transmission of multiple parasite genotypes between mother and foetus. Furthermore, we also detected powerful evidence for natural selection at the antigenic locus we targeted, suggesting a possible interaction with the host immune system.

Geographic variation of Trypanosoma cruzi discrete typing units from Triatoma infestans at different spatial scales

We assessed the diversity and distribution of Trypanosoma cruzi discrete typing units (DTU) in Triatoma infestans populations and its association with local vector-borne transmission levels at various geographic scales. At a local scale, we found high predominance (92.4%) of TcVI over TcV in 68 microscope-positive T. infestans collected in rural communities in Santiago del Estero province in northern Argentina. TcV was more often found in communities with higher house infestation prevalence compatible with active vector-borne transmission. Humans and dogs were the main bloodmeal sources of the TcV- and TcVI-infected bugs. At a broader scale, the greatest variation in DTU diversity was found within the Argentine Chaco (227 microscope-positive bugs), mainly related to differences in equitability between TcVI and TcV among study areas. At a country-wide level, a meta-analysis of published data revealed clear geographic variations in the distribution of DTUs across countries. A correspondence analysis showed that DTU distributions in domestic T. infestans were more similar within Argentina (dominated by TcVI) and within Bolivia (where TcI and TcV had similar relative frequencies), whereas large heterogeneity was found within Chile. DTU diversity was lower in the western Argentine Chaco region and Paraguay (D=0.14-0.22) than in the eastern Argentine Chaco, Bolivia and Chile (D=0.20-0.68). Simultaneous DTU identifications of T. cruzi-infected hosts and triatomines across areas differing in epidemiological status are needed to shed new light on the structure and dynamics of parasite transmission cycles.

Chagas' disease: pregnancy and congenital transmission

Chagas disease is a chronic infection that kills approximately 12,000 people a year. Mass migration of chronically infected and asymptomatic persons has caused globalization of Chagas disease and has made nonvectorial infection, including vertical and blood-borne transmission, more of a threat to human communities than vectorial infection. To control transmission, it is essential to test all pregnant women living in endemic countries and all pregnant women having migrated from, or having lived in, endemic countries. All children born to seropositive mothers should be tested not only within the first month of life but also at ~6 months and ~12 months of age. The diagnosis is made by identification of the parasite in blood before the age of 6 months and by identification of the parasite in blood and/or positive serology after 10 months of age. Follow up for a year is essential as a significant proportion of cases are initially negative and are only detected at a later stage. If the condition is diagnosed and treated early, the clinical response is excellent and the majority of cases are cured.

How to improve the early diagnosis of Trypanosoma cruzi infection: relationship between validated conventional diagnosis and quantitative DNA amplification in congenitally infected children

Background

According to the Chagas congenital transmission guides, the diagnosis of infants, born to Trypanosoma cruzi infected mothers, relies on the detection of parasites by INP micromethod, and/or the persistence of T. cruzi specific antibody titers at 10–12 months of age.

Methodology and Principal Findings

Parasitemia levels were quantified by PCR in T. cruzi-infected children, grouped according to the results of one-year follow-up diagnosis: A) Neonates that were diagnosed in the first month after delivery by microscopic blood examination (INP micromethod) (n = 19) had a median parasitemia of 1,700 Pe/mL (equivalent amounts of parasite DNA per mL); B) Infants that required a second parasitological diagnosis at six months of age (n = 10) showed a median parasitemia of around 20 Pe/mL and 500 Pe/mL at 1 and 6 months old, respectively, and C) babies with undetectable parasitemia by three blood microscopic observations but diagnosed by specific anti - T. cruzi serology at around 1 year old, (n = 22), exhibited a parasitemia of around 5 Pe/mL, 800 Pe/mL and 20 Pe/mL 1, 6 and 12 month after delivery, respectively. T. cruzi parasites were isolated by hemoculture from 19 congenitally infected children, 18 of which were genotypified as DTU TcV, (former lineage TcIId) and only one as TcI.

Significance

This report is the first to quantify parasitemia levels in more than 50 children congenitally infected with T. cruzi, at three different diagnostic controls during one-year follow-up after delivery. Our results show that the parasite burden in some children (22 out of 51) is below the detection limit of the INP micromethod. As the current trypanocidal treatment proved to be very effective to cure T. cruzi - infected children, more sensitive parasitological methods should be developed to assure an early T. cruzi congenital diagnosis.

Chagas or American Trypanosomiasis is a disease that affects around 8–10 million people in Latin America, and can be transmitted by congenital infection. In areas where the vector insect and blood transfusions are controlled, this mode of transmission is epidemiologically important, as 15,000 Trypanosoma cruzi-infected children are born each year. Parasitological methods are available to detect T. cruzi but our results suggest that more sensitive diagnostic methods should be developed, as not all newborns have high parasite burdens to be detected by microscopy. If congenital infected babies are promptly diagnosed after delivery they can be cured, as the trypanocidal treatment is very effective in children and with no significant side effects.

Evaluation of nifurtimox treatment of chronic Chagas disease by means of several parasitological methods

Currently, evaluation of drug efficacy for Chagas disease remains a controversial issue with no consensus. In this work, we evaluated the parasitological efficacy of Nifurtimox treatment in 21 women with chronic Chagas disease from an area of endemicity in Chile who were treated according to current protocols. Under pre- and posttherapy conditions, blood (B) samples and xenodiagnosis (XD) samples from these patients were subjected to analysis by real-time PCR targeting the nuclear satellite DNA of Trypanosoma cruzi (Sat DNA PCR-B, Sat DNA PCR-XD) and by PCR targeting the minicircle of kinetoplast DNA of T. cruzi (kDNA PCR-B, kDNA PCR-XD) and by T. cruzi genotyping using hybridization minicircle tests in blood and fecal samples of Triatoma infestans feed by XD. In pretherapy, kDNA PCR-B and kDNA PCR-XD detected T. cruzi in 12 (57%) and 18 (86%) cases, respectively, whereas Sat DNA quantitative PCR-B (qPCR-B) and Sat DNA qPCR-XD were positive in 18 cases (86%) each. Regarding T. cruzi genotype analysis, it was possible to observe in pretherapy the combination of TcI, TcII, and TcV lineages, including mixtures of T. cruzi strains in most of the cases. At 13 months posttherapy, T. cruzi DNA was detectable in 6 cases (29.6%) and 4 cases (19.1%) by means of Sat DNA PCR-XD and kDNA PCR-XD, respectively, indicating treatment failure with recovery of live parasites refractory to chemotherapy. In 3 cases, it was possible to identify persistence of the baseline genotypes. The remaining 15 baseline PCR-positive cases gave negative results by all molecular and parasitological methods at 13 months posttreatment, suggesting parasite response. Within this follow-up period, kDNA PCR-XD and Sat DNA qPCR-XD proved to be more sensitive tools for the parasitological evaluation of the efficacy of Nifurtimox treatment than the corresponding PCR methods performed directly from blood samples.

Fertility, gestation outcome and parasite congenital transmissibility in mice infected with TcI, TcII and TcVI genotypes of Trypanosoma cruzi

This work aims to compare the effects of acute or chronic infections with the T. cruzi genotypes TcI (X10 strain), TcII (Y strain) and TcVI (Tulahuen strain) on fertility, gestation, pup growth and the possible vertical transmission of parasites in BALB/c mice. The occurrence of congenital infection was evaluated by microscopic examination of blood and/or qPCR on blood and heart in newborn pups and/or older offspring submitted to cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in order to detect possible cryptic congenital infection. Altogether, the results show that: i) for the three strains tested, acute infection occurring after the embryo implantation in the uterus (parasite inoculation 4 days before mating), or close to delivery (parasite inoculation on day 13 of gestation), prevents or severely jeopardizes gestation outcome (inducing pup mortality and intra-uterine growth retardation); ii) for the three strains tested, gestation during chronic infection results in intra-uterine growth retardation, whereas re-inoculation of TcVI parasites during gestation in such chronically infected mice, in addition, strongly increases pup mortality; iii) congenital infection remains a rare consequence of infection (occurring in approximately 4% of living pups born to acutely infected dams); iv) PCR, detecting parasitic DNA and not living parasites, is not convenient to detect congenial infection close to delivery; v) transmission of parasites by breast milk is unlikely. This study should encourage further investigations using other parasite strains and genotypes to explore the role of virulence and other factors, as well as the mechanisms of such effects on gestation and on the establishment of congenital infection.