Evidence for anthropophily in five species of phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) from northern Colombia, revealed by molecular identification of bloodmeals

The complexities of blood-feeding patterns in mosquitoes and sandflies and the burden of disease: A minireview

Mosquitoes and sandflies exhibit a wide range of blood feeding patterns, targeting a wide range of vertebrate species, including birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, for proteins vital for egg development. This broad host range increases the opportunity for them to acquire pathogens of numerous debilitating-and-fatal diseases from various animal reservoirs, playing a significant role in disease crossover between animals and humans, also known as zoonotic transmission. This review focuses on the intricate blood-feeding habits of these dipteran vectors, their sensory systems and the complex dance between host and pathogen during disease transmission. We delve into the influence of blood sources on pathogen spread by examining the insect immune response and its intricate interplay with pathogens. The remarkable sense of smell guiding them towards food sources and hosts is explored, highlighting the interplay of multiple sensory cues in their navigation. Finally, we examine the challenges in mosquito control strategies and explore innovations in this field, emphasizing the need for sustainable solutions to combat this global health threat. By understanding the biology and behaviour of these insects, we can develop more effective strategies to protect ourselves and mitigate the burden of vector-borne diseases.

Phlebotomine (Diptera: Psychodidae) species and their blood meal sources in a new leishmaniasis focus in Los Montes de María, Bolívar, in northern Colombia

Introduction. El Alférez, a village in Los Montes de María (Bolívar, Colombia) and a macro-focus of leishmaniasis, recorded its first case in 2018, evidencing changes in the distribution and eco-epidemiology of the disease, although interactions between vectors and local fauna remain unknown. Objective. To evaluate the diversity of sandflies and their blood meal sources in the community of El Alférez in the municipality of El Carmen de Bolívar (Bolívar, Colombia). Materials and methods. In 2018, sandflies were collected using LED-based light traps in domestic, peridomestic, and sylvatic ecotopes and identified at the species level. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction targeting the mitochondrial cytochrome B gene was used to analyze blood from the digestive tract. Results. Lutzomyia evansi was the most abundant species (71.85%; n = 485/675), followed by Lu. panamensis, Lu. gomezi, Lu. trinidadensis, Lu. dubitans, Lu. abonnenci, and Lu.aclydifera. Twenty-five percent of the species had blood meals from Canis familiaris (36.00%; n = 9/25), Ovis aries (36.00%; n=9:/25), Bos taurus (24.00%; n = 6/25), Sus scrofa (20.00%; n = 5/25), and Homo sapiens (8.00%; n = 2/25). Lutzomyia evansi registered the highest feeding frequency (68.00%; n = 17/25), predominantly on a single (44.00%; n = 11/25) or multiple species (24.00%; n = 6/25). Conclusion. Results indicate a eclectic feeding behavior in Lu. evansi, implying potential reservoir hosts for Leishmania spp. and increasing transmission risk. This study is a first step towards understanding the diversity of mammalian blood sources used by sandflies, that may be crucial for vector identification and formulation of effective control measures.

Indicators sandflies and environment associated to spatial landscaping change in Chocó Biosphere Reserve UNESCO

BACKGROUND OBJECTIVES

Sandflies are vector insects associated with terrestrial forest ecosystems; in the Ecuadorian Andes, they participate in the transmission of human cutaneous leishmaniasis. This geographical area represents an opportunity to evaluate the role of sandflies as bioindicators of the degree of intervention of tropical humid forest ecosystems (THF) associated with changes in the ecology of the local landscape.

METHODS

CDC-light traps were used for collecting adult sandflies in February 2020 in a humid tropical forest within the Chocó Biosphere Reserve. All species were identified using morphological keys. Analysis data about abundance, richness, species accumulation, diversity index, species composition communities, species sex proportion, spatial sandflies environmental, Renyi's Diversity Profile were performed to compare six spatial habitats in Mashpi locality, Ecuador.

RESULTS

Sandflies were collected (n-1435); the main species are represented by Trichophoromyia reburra, Nyssomyia trapidoi, Psathyromyia aclydifera, Psychodopygus panamensis and Lutzomyia hartmanni. Only Th. reburra is associated with not intervened forest, while the other three species are associated with intervened forest within Mashpi in the Choco Biosphere Reserve. The secondary forest has major sandflies' richness, while the primary forest exhibits major abundance.

INTERPRETATION CONCLUSION

Th. reburra is a sandfly restricted to the Andean Forest and is a bioindicator of the high environmental health quality of the forest, while Ny. trapidoi and Pa. aclydifera are bioindicators of environmental disturbances in the forest. Additionally, Ps. panamensis, Lu. hartmanni and Ny. trapidoi are bioindicators of human impact and the risk of leishmaniasis.

Ecological interactions of sand flies, hosts, and Leishmania panamensis in an endemic area of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Colombia

BACKGROUND

The transmission dynamics of leishmaniasis are complex. There is also a lack of information about the ecological relationships between the vector/host/parasite at a more local and specific level. The Andean region concentrates more than 50% of Colombia's cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) cases. The study of the ecological interactions of sand flies through the identification of blood sources has provided information on the female's opportunistic behavior, feeding on various hosts. Therefore, this study aimed to determine sand flies' ecological interactions with Leishmania parasites and their blood sources in an endemic area of CL.

RESULTS

A total of 4,621 sand flies were collected, comprising 20 species, in which the most abundant were Nyssomyia yuilli yuilli (55.4%), Psychodopygus ayrozai (14.5%) and Ps. panamensis (13.4%). Sequences of 12S gene fragment were analyzed using the BLASTn search tool. Blood-meal source identification was successfully performed for 47 sand flies, detecting seven vertebrate species, human and armadillo being the most frequent. Leishmania DNA was amplified in four female pools, constituted by Ny. yuilli yuilli and Ps. ayrozai, and the identification through RFLP detected Leishmania (Viannia) panamensis in the positive pools.

CONCLUSIONS

The interactions between the sand fly species, local mammalian fauna and the Leishmania parasite in this active focus of CL, provide evidence of the potential role of two different species in the maintenance of the parasite transmission, important information for the understanding of the ecoepidemiology and transmission dynamics of the disease in Andean endemic areas. However its necessary further evaluations of the vector and host competence in the transmission and maintenance of Leishmania spp, in these complex and diverse areas.

Is Psathyromyia shannoni (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) a species complex? Retrospective study of genetic diversity of COI gene, pathogens and geographic distribution

The sand fly Psathyromyia shannoni is a broadly distributed species that is relevant for the transmission of pathogens such as Leishmania, Bartonella and viruses in several countries of America. This species belongs to the Shannoni complex. Yet its identification is difficult due to morphologic intraspecific polymorphisms that make it difficult to distinguish between species, and could therefore lead to misidentification and overestimation of its distribution. The aim of this study was to perform a retrospective study on the genetic diversity of Pa. shannoni based on the Cytochrome Oxidase subunit 1 gene and considering its geographic distribution to achieve a better identification and differentiation from other species of the Shannoni complex. According to the Maximum Likelihood analysis and the data on the genetic structure, we propose a modified delimitation of Pa. shannoni species by classifying it into at least three genetic lineages, based on genetic variability and distribution. However, more genetic information on the COI gene, mainly from countries where this species has been reported, is needed to strengthen this proposal.

FLEBOTOMÍNEOS (PSYCHODIDAE: PHLEBOTOMINAE) EN LA ZONA PERIURBANA DE MONTERÍA (CÓRDOBA- COLOMBIA)

El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar la diversidad de flebotomíneos (Diptera: Psychodidae) en la zona peri-urbana de Montería, (Córdoba-Colombia). Los especímenes se colectaron en cuatro localidades alrededor de Montería con trampas CDC y aspiradores bucales durante febrero y junio de 2018. Los individuos se fragmentaron y aclararon con lactofenol para su posterior identificación mediante claves taxonómicas especializadas. Se estimó la diversidad con el índice de Shannon-Wiener, las localidades se compararon usando la distancia de Bray-Curtis y se cuantificó la riqueza con los índices de Chao 2 y Jacknife 2. Se identificaron seis especies: Micropygomyia cayennensis, Lutzomyia gomezi, Pintomyia rangeliana, Micropygomyia micropyga, Psathyromyia shannoni y Pintomyia evansi. Los sitios de muestreo fueron similares en cuanto a diversidad. Se concluye que la zona peri-urbana de Montería está habitada por especies generalistas de dípteros de la familia Psychodidae que constituyen un riesgo epidemiológico. La riqueza en el área se ve afectada por las características propias de las especies encontradas.

FLEBOTOMINOFAUNA Y PRIMER REGISTRO DE Lutzomyia aclydifera (DIPTERA: PSYCHODIDAE) EN EL CARIBE COLOMBIANO

Uno de los focos de leishmaniasis más importante de Colombia está en Los Montes de María, Departamento de Bolívar, específicamente en El Carmen de Bolívar. A la fecha están registradas 19 especies del género Lutzomyia, en este departamento, algunas con antecedentes como vectores de Leishmania spp. La presente nota informa la abundancia y la diversidad de la flebotominofauna en la zona rural de El Carmen de Bolívar. Mediante el uso de trampas de CDC, se colectaron 1327 hembras del género Lutzomyia entre enero a noviembre de 2018: Lu. evansi (81 %), Lu. panamensis (15,5 %), Lu. gomezi (2,9 %), Lu. dubitans (0,15 %), Lu. aclydifera (0,07 %), Lu. c. cayennensis (0,07 %), Lu. rangeliana (0,07 %) y Lu. serrana (0,07 %). La mayor abundancia de flebotomíneos se presentó en noviembre y la menor en abril, coincidiendo con los meses de lluvia y sequía, respectivamente; mientras que en enero se presentó la mayor diversidad. En esta investigación sobresalen Lu. evansi, Lu. panamensis y Lu. gomezi por sus antecedentes como vectores de Leishmania en el Departamento de Bolívar y otras regiones del país. Se reporta por primera vez para el Caribe Colombiano la especie Lu. aclydifera, la cual deberá ser vigilada en cuanto a su capacidad vectorial para Leishmania.

Amplicon-based next-generation sequencing reveals the co-existence of multiple Leishmania species in patients with visceral leishmaniasis

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a mammalian protozoal disease propagated in the Americas by female phlebotomine sandflies, mainly caused by Leishmania infantum. However, in recent years, cases of VL caused by different Leishmania species, such as L. amazonensis and L. colombiensis, have been reported in the continent. This study used an amplicon-based next-generation sequencing approach to identify VL aetiologic species using high-depth sequencing targeting a region on the Heat Shock Protein 70 gene. In this first approach, six samples from five patients diagnosed with VL were selected and analysed to identify DNA of Leishmania spp. All samples harboured DNA of L. infantum; five samples were found to be co-infected with other Leishmania spp. or with Trypanosoma cruzi, and just one sample was mono-infected with L. infantum. This study demonstrates the usefulness of this methodology to identify trypanosomatid co-infections in clinical samples, which presents an interesting study panorama considering their biological, clinical and epidemiological implications.

Spatial and Temporal Variability of Visceral Leishmaniasis in Colombia, 2007 to 2018

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a neglected tropical disease associated with poverty and is endemic in 56 countries worldwide. Brazil, Venezuela, and Colombia are the most affected countries in South America. In Colombia, the National Public Health Surveillance System (SIVIGILA) consolidates epidemiological information and monitors all VL cases nationwide. However, to date, no studies have investigated the occurrence of VL in Colombia using metadata analysis. We studied the demographic data, the spatial and temporal distribution of VL cases, and the association with vector distribution of Leishmania species in Colombia from 2007 to 2018. We found 306 VL cases reported to SIVIGILA for this period, with a coverage of 25.5 cases/year, and a mortality of 2.28% (seven deaths). The highest number of confirmed cases (N = 52) occurred in 2007; the lowest (N = 9) occurred in 2012. The cases were reported mainly in children (< 7 years) affiliated with the subsidized health regimen. Regarding the geographic distribution, the cases were reported by 42 municipalities distributed in 10 departments. The occurrence of VL cases toward the northeast of Colombia, and the distribution of vectors, such as Lutzomyia longipalpis and Lu. evansi, may be changing the panorama of VL in the country. We conclude that VL, mainly in recent years, shows a temporal and spatial variability associated with the occurrence of cases in new settings. Our findings increase our understanding and knowledge of this disease, and suggest the need to monitor and prioritize areas with changes in geographic expansion to improve prevention and control actions in the country.

Opportunistic feeding behaviour and Leishmania infantum detection in Phlebotomus perniciosus females collected in the human leishmaniasis focus of Madrid, Spain (2012-2018)

Background

An outbreak of human leishmaniasis due to Leishmania infantum has been registered in an urban area of southwestern Madrid, Spain, since 2010. Entomological surveys carried out in the municipalities of Fuenlabrada, Leganés, Getafe and Humanes de Madrid showed that Phlebotomus perniciosus is the only potential vector. In this work, an intensive molecular surveillance was performed in P. perniciosus females captured in the region between 2012 and 2018.

Methodology/Principal findings

A total of 1805 P. perniciosus females were analyzed for Leishmania infection, and 1189 of them also for bloodmeal identification. Eleven different species of vertebrate were detected by amplification and subsequent sequencing of the 359 bp cytb fragment. The most prevalent blood source identified was hare (n = 553, 46.51%), followed by rabbit (n = 262, 21.95%). Less frequent were cat (n = 45, 3.80%), human (n = 34, 2.90%), pig (n = 14, 1.20%), horse (n = 11, 0.93%), sheep (n = 3, 0.25%), rhea (n = 3, 0.25%), partridge (n = 1, 0.09%) and chicken (n = 1, 0.09%). The distribution of the blood meal sources varied between the different locations. Regarding L. infantum detection, PCR amplification of a fragment of kDNA, cpb gene and ITS1 region showed 162 positive specimens (8.97%). The highest infection rate was found in the municipality of Leganés (15.17%).

Conclusions

The results of this molecular survey in P. perniciosus, the only leishmaniasis vector in the outbreak occurred in southwestern Madrid region, showed its opportunistic blood-feeding behaviour, high infection rates and the differences between the different points. This study was an essential part of the intensive surveillance plan in the area and the results obtained have supported the implementation of control measures in the outbreak.

Vector-borne diseases (VBD) comprise a pathogen-vector-reservoir relation, and control programs should take into account different factors involving this relationship. This study is focused on a leishmaniasis outbreak that has occurred in the southwestern Madrid region since 2010. An intensive molecular surveillance of the sand fly vector Phlebotomus perniciosus was carried out from 2012 to 2018 in 4 municipalities from the affected region: Fuenlabrada, Leganés, Getafe and Humanes de Madrid. The aim of this investigation was to discern how much the vector was infected and find out its blood-feeding habits in the different surveyed points. The results showed an important rate of infected sand flies and also that P. perniciosus presents an opportunistic blood-feeding behaviour, taking blood from many different hosts, depending on their availability and density. The results obtained in this surveillance helped the authorities to plan and implement more accurate and effective control measures in the area, reflecting the importance of applying molecular surveillance in VBD outbreaks.

Development of Lutzomyia evansi immature stages in peridomiciliary environment in a leishmaniasis urban focus in the Colombian Caribbean

In the Caribbean region of Colombia, Lutzomyia evansi is recognized as the vector for Leishmania infantum and Leishmania braziliensis. Identifying breeding sites and surveying abundance of immature phlebotomine sand flies in urban foci of leishmaniasis are useful tool to design new vector control strategies. The objective of this study was to describe the natural breeding sites of Lu. evansi in peridomiciliary vegetation in a peri-urban area of the Colombian Caribbean region. Between 2013 and 2015, 466 microhabitats were sampled, collecting 621 kg of soil samples. The explored microhabitats were bases and tree holes, fallen trees, animal caves, leaf litter, domestic animal shelters, and the inside of dwellings. The immature phlebotomines were recovered by direct search under the stereoscope and incubation of soil samples. In total, 103 microhabitats, associated with 17 arboreal species, were identified as natural breeding sites. Of 422 immature sandflies detected, 98.6% were found in soils at the base of the trees. Eight species of the genus Lutzomyia were identified, of which Lu. evansi (52.6%) was the most abundant, followed by Lu. rangeliana, Lu. cayennensis cayennensis, Lu. atroclavata, Lu. micropyga, Lu. trinidadensis, Lu. dubitans and Lu. gomezi. The arboreal species Cordia alba was the most used by phlebotomines for the development of their immature stages. From 63 natural breeding sites identified 268 immatures were recovered including 176 Lu. evansi. The accumulated precipitation showed correlation (R2 = 0.643, p = 0.013) with the abundance of developmental stages, which increased in September and October. The natural breeding sites of Lu. evansi exhibited a local pattern of occurrence dependent on rainfall. The physicochemical analysis of the soil samples showed that the natural sites for C. alba were categorized as fertile loam soils. This is the first systematic study that estimates the temporal variation of immature sand flies in peridomiciliary vegetation in a peri-urban focus of leishmaniasis in Colombia.

Behavioral Aspects of Phlebotomine Sand Flies Associated with a Case of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Atlántico, Northern Colombia

After the first autochthonous case of cutaneous leishmaniasis was reported in the Atlántico department in the Caribbean region of Colombia, entomological sampling was conducted in the specific areas where the infection might have occurred. CDC traps were installed inside and outside dwellings in the peri-urban and rural areas of a settlement in the municipality of Luruaco. Sampling was performed during the night with protected human bait, and phlebotomine sand flies were actively sampled from potential diurnal resting sites within dwellings. Ten species of the genus Lutzomyia were identified; Lutzomyia evansi was the dominant species (78%) in the rural and peri-urban areas as well as in the different sampled habitats, followed by Lutzomyia panamensis and Lutzomyia gomezi. There was a 100% household infestation by Lu. evansi, and its indoor mean abundance was 13.3 sand flies/CDC trap/night. The indoor mean abundance of Lu. panamensis and Lu. gomezi was only 0.9 and 0.8 sand flies/CDC trap/night, respectively. Female Lu. evansi were collected with protected human bait, mostly in the peridomestic area, with sustained activity during the night and a slight increase in the activity from 19:00 to 23:00 hours. Of the total sand flies captured in the diurnal resting sites, 73.1% were collected from the walls of bedrooms and corresponded to Lu. evansi, Lutzomyia cayennensis cayennensis, and Lutzomyia trinidadensis. Owing to their vectorial importance, the species on which entomological surveillance should be focused are Lu. evansi, Lu. panamensis, and Lu. gomezi. The biting and resting behavior reported in this study will help guide vector prevention and the control of leishmaniasis within the study area.

Primera aproximación a la fauna flebotomínea (Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) del departamento de Atlántico

Dentro del género Lutzomyiaalgunas especies son vectores de la enfermedad llamada leishmaniasis, la cual tiene implicaciones en la salud pública, desarrollando diferentes manifestaciones clínicas como leishmaniasis cutánea, visceral y mucocutánea que afectan altamente al ser humano. El objetivo de este estudio fuerealizar un inventario de las especies del género Lutzomyia presentes en seis zonas del departamento del Atlántico. Se implementaron 3 técnicas de capturas tradicionales: trampas CDC entre 18:00-06:00, trampa Shannon entre 19:00-22:00 y búsqueda activa de flebotomíneos con aspiradores bucales en troncos, bases de árboles y otros sitios entre 09:00-11:00 y 16:00-17:30, en seis municipios del departamento del Atlántico, Colombia. Se capturaron diez especies flebotomíneas y se reporta por vez primera para el departamento del Atlántico el hallazgo de Lutzomyia longipalpis y Lutzomyia atroclavata. De las diez especies capturadas, Lutzomyia longipalpistiene antecedentes como vector de Leishmania infantumen Colombia y en otras regiones de Latinoamérica, además es considerada el principal vector de leishmaniasis visceral en las Américas. La especie más abundante y con mayor distribución espacial fue Lu. evansi, principal vector de leishmaniasis visceral en la región Caribe. En conclusión,la riqueza de la fauna flebotomínea del departamento de Atlántico se actualiza a doce especies, con el primer registro de Lu. longipalpisy Lu. atroclavata. También se reporta la fauna flebotomínea por primera vez en localidades del departamento de Atlántico como Campeche, Puerto Colombia, Luruaco, Ponedera y Campo de la Cruz.

A novel MALDI-TOF MS-based method for blood meal identification in insect vectors: A proof of concept study on phlebotomine sand flies

Background

Identification of blood sources of hematophagous arthropods is crucial for understanding the transmission cycles of vector-borne diseases. Many different approaches towards host determination were proposed, including precipitin test, ELISA, DNA- and mass spectrometry-based methods; yet all face certain complications and limitations, mostly related to blood degradation. This study presents a novel method for blood meal identification, peptide mass mapping (PMM) analysis of host-specific hemoglobin peptides using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry.

Methodology/Principal findings

To identify blood meal source, proteins from abdomens of engorged sand fly females were extracted, cleaved by trypsin and peptide fragments of host hemoglobin were sequenced using MALDI-TOF MS. The method provided correct host identification of 100% experimentally fed sand flies until 36h post blood meal (PBM) and for 80% samples even 48h PBM. In females fed on two hosts, both blood meal sources were correctly assigned for 60% of specimens until 36h PBM. In a validation study on field-collected females, the method yielded unambiguous host determination for 96% of specimens. The suitability of PMM-based MALDI-TOF MS was proven experimentally also on lab-reared Culex mosquitoes.

Conclusions/Significance

PMM-based MALDI-TOF MS analysis targeting host specific hemoglobin peptides represents a sensitive and cost-effective method with a fast and simple preparation protocol. As demonstrated here on phlebotomine sand flies and mosquitoes, it allows reliable and rapid blood source determination even 48h PBM with minimal material input and provides more robust and specific results than other currently used methods. This approach was also successfully tested on field-caught engorged females and proved to be a promising useful tool for large-scale screening of host preferences studies. Unlike other methods including MALDI-TOF protein profiling, it allows correct identification of mixed blood meals as was demonstrated on both experimentally fed and field-collected sand flies.

Leishmaniases belong among the most important and yet neglected vector-borne diseases, transmitted mostly by bite of female phlebotomine sand flies. To understand role of different reservoir hosts in the transmission cycles, it is important to determine blood meal sources of bloodfeeding females. Most of currently used methods face challenges due to tiny volumes of engorged blood, in case of mammals also enucleated, as well as quick progress of blood digestion which leads to rapid DNA and protein degradation. New approach towards blood source determination presented in this study is based on MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry that identifies unique peptide sequences of host hemoglobins, showing high precision and sensitivity together with a longer time period for successful host determination when compared to nowadays standardly used DNA sequencing. It was tested and verified on engorged phlebotomine sand flies from both laboratory colonies and natural endemic areas and also on Culex mosquitoes and shall be universal to hematophagous insects. Beside blood meal identification, it allows also the use of both morphological and molecular methods (DNA- or protein-based) for the species identification of the analysed specimen.

Vegetation Cover and Microspatial Distribution of Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in an Endemic Locality for Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Northern Argentina

The sand fly fauna in Hipólito Yrigoyen, Argentina, a locality where cutaneous leishmaniasis cases occur, was surveyed with zones of higher abundance of sand flies correlated to vegetation cover estimated through normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Sand flies were collected with 10 CDC traps during six nights, from December 2009 to January 2010. A map was built of expected sand flies abundance in which levels of NDVI were categorized. In total, 1,392 Phlebotominae (Diptera: Psychodidae) specimens were collected, comprised of the following species: Nyssomyia neivai (Pinto 1926), Migonemyia migonei (França 1920), species of the cortelezzii complex (Brèthes 1923), Evandromyia sallesi (Galvão & Coutinho 1940), and Psathyromyia shannoni (Dyar 1929). Positive correlations were found between the abundance of sand flies and the NDVI (P < 0.05) for buffer areas of <150 m radii from the trap location points, i.e., the sand fly abundance was greater where vegetation cover and density were greater. In this context, plant cover should be taken into account to prioritize surveillance and control areas within the program of sand flies control in northern Argentina.

Detection of DNA of Leishmania siamensis in Sergentomyia (Neophlebotomus) iyengari (Diptera: Psychodidae) and Molecular Identification of Blood Meals of Sand Flies in an Affected Area, Southern Thailand

In Thailand, leishmaniasis is an emerging vector-borne disease that has become a public health concern. In related epidemiological surveys to identify potential Leishmania vectors in the affected areas, DNA of Leishmania martiniquensis (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) was detected in Sergentomyia (Neophebotomus) gemmea (Diptera: Psychodidae) and Sergentomyia (Parrotomyia) barraudi (Diptera: Psychodidae). Recently, a more elaborate study was conducted in the same areas that included sand fly species identification, screening sand flies for the presence of Leishmania DNA and blood meal analysis to identify potential reservoir hosts directed toward assessing the risk of human infection. Twenty-nine archived pools of sand flies collected in Hat Samran District, Trang Province were used in this study. Sand fly species were confirmed using PCR encompassing regions within the mitochondrial DNA. Leishmania DNA was detected using PCR of the heat shock protein 70 region (hsp70-PCR) and blood meal identification was performed using PCR of the cyt b gene of vertebrate mitochondrial DNA (cytb-nd1-PCR) and human-specific AluYb8 repeat (AluYb8-PCR). Four sand fly species were confirmed, i.e., Phlebotomus (Anaphlebotomus) stantoni (Diptera: Psychodidae), S. barraudi, Sergentomyia (Neophlebotomus) iyengari (Diptera: Psychodidae), and S. gemmea. Leishmania siamensis was detected in one female S. iyengari. Only human blood was detected in P. stantoni and S. gemmea, while both sun skink (Mabuya multifasciata) and human blood were detected in S. iyengari. In this study, we showed that S. iyengari could be a potential vector of L. siamensis infection among humans.

Diversity patterns, Leishmania DNA detection, and bloodmeal identification of Phlebotominae sand flies in villages in northern Colombia

Leishmaniases are neglected tropical diseases exhibiting complex transmission cycles due to the number of parasite species circulating, sand fly species acting as vectors and infected mammals, including humans, which are defined in the New World as accidental hosts. However, current transmission scenarios are changing, and the disease is no longer exclusively related to forested areas but urban transmission foci occur, involving some species of domestic animals as suspected reservoirs. The aim of this study was to determine the transmission cycles in urban environments by evaluating sand fly diversity, detection of Leishmania DNA, and bloodmeal sources through intra and peridomestic collections. The study was carried out in Colombia, in 13 municipalities of Cordoba department, implementing a methodology that could be further used for the evaluation of vector-borne diseases in villages or towns. Our sampling design included 24 houses randomly selected in each of 15 villages distributed in 13 municipalities, which were sampled in two seasons in 2015 and 2016. Sand flies were collected using CDC light traps placed in intra and peridomestic habitats. In addition to the morphological identification, molecular identification through DNA barcodes was also performed. A total of 19,743 sand flies were collected and 13,848 of them (10,268 females and 3,580 males) were used in molecular procedures. Circulation of two known parasite species–Leishmania infantum and Leishmania panamensis was confirmed. Blood source analyses showed that sand flies fed on humans, particularly in the case of the known L. infantum vector, P. evansi; further analyses are advised to evaluate the reservoirs involved in parasite transmission. Our sampling design allowed us to evaluate potential transmission cycles on a department scale, by defining suspected vector species, parasite species present in different municipalities and feeding habits.

Bionomic aspects of Lutzomyia evansi and Lutzomyia longipalpis, proven vectors of Leishmania infantum in an endemic area of non-ulcerative cutaneous leishmaniasis in Honduras

Background

Some Lutzomyia species are the vectors of human leishmaniasis in the Americas. Visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis are both endemic in the Pacific region of Honduras, but the non-ulcerative form is the more frequent clinical manifestation in this region, where Lutzomyia longipalpis is the most abundant and the only incriminated vector. Taxonomic identification and distribution studies of sand flies are important to understand the epidemiology and to control these neglected tropical diseases.

Results

Here, we identified more than 13,000 Lutzomyia specimens captured in Isla del Tigre, Honduras, through a classical morphological approach. The two most common species were Lutzomyia evansi and Lu. longipalpis, and this is the first report of three Lutzomyia species on this island. The blood meal source was successfully identified for five sand fly species. A barcode analysis using the cox1 mitochondrial marker proved to be effective in discriminating between species and seems to be a valuable tool for future epidemiological studies including a wider geographical area.

Conclusion

This study updates the diversity and blood meal sources of Lutzomyia species in an island endemic for non-ulcerative cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Pacific region of Honduras, and determines the effectiveness of the barcoding approach to discriminate species, as a complementary tool to classical morphology.

Blood Meal Analysis of Phlebotomine Sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) for Leishmania spp. Identification and Vertebrate Blood Origin, Central Tunisia, 2015-2016

During the time periods of June 2015 and from July to August 2016, sandflies were collected among seven collection sites of the three leishmaniasis endemic villages of Sidi Bouzid, Tunisia. A total of 690 sandflies were captured and identified (380 males and 310 females). Four species belonging to genus Phlebotomus (Ph.) and two species belonging to genus Sergentomyia were identified. Leishmania DNA was detected in four out of 310 females (one Ph. sergenti and three Ph. papatasi). The overall sensitivity of the Prepronociceptin gene detection reached 76%. The concurrent presence of Ph. papatasi and Ph. sergenti vectors, the analysis of blood-meals, together with the detection of L. major in Ph. papatasi, confirms the ultimate conditions for the transmission of the disease in center Tunisia. These results expand the known epidemiological area of distrubtion of leishmaniasis and its vectors in this part of Tunisia, highlighting the need for ongoing entomological and parasitological surveillance.

Phlebotomine sand fly survey in the focus of leishmaniasis in Madrid, Spain (2012-2014): seasonal dynamics, Leishmania infantum infection rates and blood meal preferences

Background

An unusual increase of human leishmaniasis cases due to Leishmania infantum is occurring in an urban area of southwestern Madrid, Spain, since 2010. Entomological surveys have shown that Phlebotomus perniciosus is the only potential vector. Direct xenodiagnosis in hares (Lepus granatensis) and rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) collected in the focus area proved that they can transmit parasites to colonized P. perniciosus. Isolates were characterized as L. infantum. The aim of the present work was to conduct a comprehensive study of sand flies in the outbreak area, with special emphasis on P. perniciosus.

Methods

Entomological surveys were done from June to October 2012–2014 in 4 stations located close to the affected area. Twenty sticky traps (ST) and two CDC light traps (LT) were monthly placed during two consecutive days in every station. LT were replaced every morning. Sand fly infection rates were determined by dissecting females collected with LT. Molecular procedures applied to study blood meal preferences and to detect L. infantum were performed for a better understanding of the epidemiology of the outbreak.

Results

A total of 45,127 specimens belonging to 4 sand fly species were collected: P. perniciosus (75.34%), Sergentomyia minuta (24.65%), Phlebotomus sergenti (0.005%) and Phlebotomus papatasi (0.005%). No Phlebotomus ariasi were captured. From 3203 P. perniciosus female dissected, 117 were infected with flagellates (3.7%). Furthermore, 13.31% and 7.78% of blood-fed and unfed female sand flies, respectively, were found infected with L. infantum by PCR. The highest rates of infected P. perniciosus were detected at the end of the transmission periods. Regarding to blood meal preferences, hares and rabbits were preferred, although human, cat and dog blood were also found.

Conclusions

This entomological study highlights the exceptional nature of the Leishmania outbreak occurring in southwestern Madrid, Spain. It is confirmed that P. perniciosus is the only vector in the affected area, with high densities and infection rates. Rabbits and hares were the main blood meal sources of this species. These results reinforce the need for an extensive and permanent surveillance in this region, and others of similar characteristics, in order to control the vector and regulate the populations of wild reservoirs.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2309-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

[Estimation of time detection limit for human cytochrome b in females of Lutzomyia evansi]

INTRODUCTION

Molecular biology techniques have allowed a better knowledge of sources of blood meals in vector insects. However, the usefulness of these techniques depends on both the quantity of ingested blood and the digestion process in the insect.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the time limit for detection of the human cytochrome b (Cyt b) gene in experimentally fed females of Lutzomyia evansi.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eight groups of L. evansi females were fed on human blood and sacrificed at intervals of 24 hours post-ingestion. Total DNA was extracted from each female and a segment of 358 bp of Cyt b was amplified. In order to eliminate false positives, amplification products were subjected to a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis.

RESULTS

The human Cyt b gene segment was detected in 86% (49/57) of the females of L. evansi, from 0 to 168 hours after blood ingestion. In 7% (4/57) of the individuals we amplified insect DNA, while in the remaining 7%, the band of interest was not amplified. We did not find any statistical differences between groups of females sacrificed at different times post-blood meal regarding the amplification of the human Cyt b gene segment or the number of samples amplified.

CONCLUSION

The human Cyt b gene segment was detectable in L. evansi females up to 168 hours after blood ingestion.

A new whole mitochondrial genome qPCR (WMG-qPCR) with SYBR Green® to identify phlebotomine sand fly blood meals

Phlebotomine sand flies are blood-feeding insects of marked medical and veterinary significance. Investigations on the biology of these insects hold great importance for both ecological and epidemiological purposes. The present work describes a new approach for real-time PCR (qPCR) with SYBR Green^®, named WMG-qPCR, to identify phlebotomine blood meals. The novelty of the assay was to design primers based on the Whole Mitochondrial Genome (WMG) of the potential hosts (human, dog, cat, brown rat and chicken) aiming to amplify through qPCR the regions of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which are less conserved among all species. Initially, the best method for mtDNA extraction to be applied in WMG-qPCR was determined. Afterwards, amplification specificities were accessed by cross-reaction assays with mtDNA samples from all animal species, besides phlebotomine DNA. Finally, the selected primers were also tested for their limit of DNA detection through standard curves constructed by serial dilution of blood DNA obtained for each target animal species. The WMG-qPCR was able to detect as low as 10pL of blood, equivalent to 26, 84, 130, and 320fg DNA of cat, human, dog and rat, respectively. The assay was also capable to amplify as low as 5pL of chicken blood (5pg DNA). In conclusion, WMG-qPCR seems to be a promising tool to identify phlebotomine blood meals, with high species-specificity and sensitivity. Furthermore, as no supplementary techniques are required, this new approach presents minimized costs and simplified technical-training requirements for execution.