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Li Y, He T, Xie J, Lv S, Li Z, Yuan M, Hu F, Lin D. Trend of Human Schistosomiasis Japonica Prevalence in China from 1990 to 2019. Trop Med Infect Dis 2023; 8:344. [PMID: 37505640 PMCID: PMC10385504 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8070344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Schistosomiasis (Schistosomiasis japonica) remains an important public health problem in China, and the Chinese government has set an ambitious goal of eliminating schistosomiasis by 2030. Based on the observational study of the Global Burden of Disease Study database in 2019 (GBD2019) and the World Bank database, this study aimed to analyze the prevalence trend of schistosomiasis in China from 1990 to 2019 by using the joinpoint regression model, and the relationship between economic and social development and schistosomiasis prevalence. The data of age-standardized infection rates (ASRs) from the Global Burden of Disease Study Global Health Data Exchange were collected, and Gross national product per capita (GDP) and people using safely managed sanitation services ((PPMS) % of population) were extracted from the World Bank database. Trends of ASR were analyzed using joinpoint regression analysis, the association of ASR with GDP, and PPMS using the Pearson correlation analysis. The results reveal that, from 1990 to 2019, the overall trend of ASR from schistosomiasis showed a decrease for both sexes, the decreases in men were relatively smaller compared with women. A larger decrease has been observed in the age groups from 15 to 49 years compared with other age groups. The ASR of schistosomiasis had a significant negative correlation with GDP and PPMS. This observational study identified decreasing prevalence rate of schistosomiasis in China since 1990. Continuous investment, optimization of control strategy, and economic development will help to achieve the goal of schistosomiasis elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifeng Li
- Jiangxi Provincial Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Nanchang 330096, China
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Schistosomiasis Prevention and Control, Nanchang 330096, China
| | - Tingting He
- Jiangxi Provincial Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Nanchang 330096, China
| | - Jingzi Xie
- Jiangxi Provincial Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Nanchang 330096, China
| | - Shangbiao Lv
- Jiangxi Provincial Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Nanchang 330096, China
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Schistosomiasis Prevention and Control, Nanchang 330096, China
| | - Zongguang Li
- Jiangxi Provincial Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Nanchang 330096, China
| | - Min Yuan
- Jiangxi Provincial Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Nanchang 330096, China
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Schistosomiasis Prevention and Control, Nanchang 330096, China
| | - Fei Hu
- Jiangxi Provincial Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Nanchang 330096, China
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Schistosomiasis Prevention and Control, Nanchang 330096, China
| | - Dandan Lin
- Jiangxi Provincial Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Nanchang 330096, China
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Schistosomiasis Prevention and Control, Nanchang 330096, China
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Xu S, Zhang YWQ, Habib MR, Li SZ, Yuan Y, Ke WH, Jiang N, Dong H, Zhao QP. Inhibition of alternative oxidase disrupts the development and oviposition of Biomphalaria glabrata snails. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:73. [PMID: 36804043 PMCID: PMC9938623 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05642-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biomphalaria glabrata is one of the main intermediate hosts of Schistosoma mansoni, the most widespread species of Schistosoma. Our previous studies proved that alternative oxidase (AOX), the terminal oxidase in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, widely exists in several species of intermediate host snails of Schistosoma. Meanwhile, inhibition of AOX activity in Oncomelania hupensis snails could dramatically enhance the molluscicidal effect of niclosamide. As a hermaphroditic aquatic mollusc, the high fecundity and population density of B. glabrata increase the difficulty of snail control, which is one of the critical strategies for schistosomiasis elimination. The present study aimed to investigate the possible role of AOX in the development and fecundity of B. glabrata snail, which could be manipulated more manageable than other species of intermediate host snails of Schistosoma. METHODS The dynamic expression of the AOX gene was investigated in different developmental stages and tissues of B. glabrata, with morphological change and oviposition behaviour observed from juvenile to adult snails. Furtherly, dsRNA-mediated knockdown of BgAOX mRNA and the AOX protein activity inhibiting was performed to investigate the effect of AOX on the development and oviposition of snails. RESULTS The BgAOX gene expression profile is highly related to the development from late juveniles to adults, especially to the reproductive system of snails, with a positive correlation of 0.975 between egg production and BgAOX relative expression in ovotestis of snails. The inhibition of BgAOX at the transcriptional level and AOX activity could efficiently inhibit snail growth. However, the interference at the BgAOX protein activity level led to more severe tissue damage and more significant inhibition of oviposition than at the transcriptional level. This inhibition of growth and oviposition decreased gradually with the increase in the snail size. CONCLUSIONS The inhibition of AOX could efficiently disrupt the development and oviposition of B. glabrata snails, and the intervention targeting AOX at the juvenile stage is more effective for snails. This investigation explored the role of AOX in the growth and development of snails. It would benefit snail control in the future by providing a potential target while using molluscicides more efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sha Xu
- grid.49470.3e0000 0001 2331 6153Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province China
| | - Yang-Wen-Qing Zhang
- grid.49470.3e0000 0001 2331 6153Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province China
| | - Mohamed R. Habib
- grid.420091.e0000 0001 0165 571XMedical Malacology Laboratory, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Shi-Zhu Li
- grid.453135.50000 0004 1769 3691National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Tropical Diseases Research, WHO Collaborating Center for Tropical Diseases, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Yuan
- Hubei Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, Hubei Province China
| | - Wei Hao Ke
- grid.49470.3e0000 0001 2331 6153Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province China
| | - Ni Jiang
- grid.49470.3e0000 0001 2331 6153Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province China
| | - Huifen Dong
- grid.49470.3e0000 0001 2331 6153Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province China
| | - Qin-Ping Zhao
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China.
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Li HM, Arthur Djibougou D, Lu SN, Lv S, Zongo D, Wang DQ, Ding W, Qian YJ, Huang LL, Guan YY, Xiao N, Serge Diagbouga P, Engels D, Zhou XN. Strengthening capacity-building in malaria and schistosomiasis control under China-Africa cooperation: Assessing a case study of Burkina Faso. SCIENCE IN ONE HEALTH 2022; 1:100009. [PMID: 39076603 PMCID: PMC11262290 DOI: 10.1016/j.soh.2023.100009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2024]
Abstract
Malaria and schistosomiasis are highly prevalent in Burkina Faso, whereas China has successfully eliminated malaria as well as schistosomiasis as a public health problem. To implement the China-Africa health cooperation initiative, a series of activities were launched since 2019 to enhance understanding and cooperation among malaria and schistosomiasis professionals in China and Burkina Faso. This study described the achievements of the First Virtual Symposium of China-Burkina Faso Cooperation on Schistosomiasis and Malaria Control. Pre- and post-test questionnaires were employed to study the knowledge changes of participants regarding malaria and schistosomiasis control and elimination, explore capacity-building priorities, and identify potential challenges. Chi-squared statistics were used to compare the differences between sub-groups, and p value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Participants ranked their preferences for challenges and capacity-building priorities in future cooperation. The responses of participants from both China and Burkina Faso indicated effective improvement in their general knowledge about the diseases whereas the improvement in professional knowledge on malaria and schistosomiasis was limited. The total correct response rate increased from 54.08% to 66.78%. Chinese participants had better schistosomiasis knowledge than Burkina Faso participants did, but the same result was not found for malaria. Diseases control strategies, surveillance and response system, and diagnostics techniques were identified as the top three priorities for future capacity building. Participants from China and Burkina Faso shared almost the same views about challenges except with respect to pathogens, which the former saw as a major challenge and the latter did not. The study findings will help policymakers, health managers, and researchers to understand the future cooperation between Burkina Faso and China on malaria and schistosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Mei Li
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Diakourga Arthur Djibougou
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de La Santé (IRSS), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
- Etudes Formation et Recherches Developpement en Santé (EFORDS), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Shen-Ning Lu
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Shan Lv
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
- The School of Global Health, Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Dramane Zongo
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de La Santé (IRSS), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Duo-Quan Wang
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Wei Ding
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Ying-Jun Qian
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Lu-Lu Huang
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Ya-Yi Guan
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Ning Xiao
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
- The School of Global Health, Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Potiandi Serge Diagbouga
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de La Santé (IRSS), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
- Etudes Formation et Recherches Developpement en Santé (EFORDS), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
- Scientific Research and Innovation, Ministry of Higher Education, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Dirk Engels
- Uniting to Combat NTDs Support Centre, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Xiao-Nong Zhou
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research); NHC Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology; WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases; National Center for International Research on Tropical Diseases; Shanghai 200025, China
- The School of Global Health, Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
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Zhu H, Liu JB, Xiao Y, Tu ZW, Shan XW, Li B, Wu JL, Zhou XR, Sun LC, Xia J, Liu S, Huang XB. Efforts to eliminate schistosomiasis in Hubei province, China: 2005-2018. Acta Trop 2022; 231:106417. [PMID: 35318000 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Hubei province is one of the most schistosomiasis-epidemic-prone provinces in China. A series of strategies were adopted by the government to curb the rebound schistosomiasis endemic status that has prevailed since the early 2000s. This study aimed to elucidate the trends of schistosomiasis transmission and to appraise the effectiveness of the integrated control strategy in lake and marshland areas. METHODS Surveillance data of schistosomiasis in the Hubei province between 2005 and 2018 were analyzed, including conventional health control measures, integrated strategies, and measures that focused on the infection source. According to the local annual plan for schistosomiasis control in endemic counties, previous measures were human and snail control and surveillance. Residents aged 6-65 years were screened by an immunological detection method called indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA) after the transmission season each year. All residents who tested positive were then asked to provide a fecal sample for examination by the miracidium hatching technique (MHT) to detect the presence of schistosomes. Moreover, systematic snail surveys were conducted as a part of the combined environmental sampling method. The latter included integrated strategies and measures that focused on the infection source. Bovine stool samples were also collected and concurrently assessed using the MHT by the agriculture department, river-hardening slope protection was constructed by the water conservancy department, and forestation promotion was conducted by the forest department. The effectiveness of the integrated control strategy was assessed using two indicators of resident and livestock infection rates and three indicators of snail epidemics across all endemic areas. RESULTS From 2005 to 2018, a total of 28. 46 million and 2. 05 million residents were assessed by immunological (IHA) and etiological (MHT) detection techniques, respectively. Snail surveys and molluscicide application were performed in 2. 26 hectares and 0. 37 hectares, respectively. Moreover, 2. 60 million bovines were assessed by etiological detection techniques (MHT). The river-hardening slope protection project was implemented in 503 places, and 46 thousand hectares in endemic areas underwent environmental modification. Forestation was implemented at an area of 0. 15 million hectares. Between 2005 and 2018, the epidemic indicators, including resident and livestock infection rates and the infested areas and infection rate of snails, all presented downward trends. The resident infection rate decreased from 3. 78% in 2005 to 0% in 2016, which persisted through 2018. The livestock infection rate decreased from 5. 63% in 2005 to 0% in 2013, which also persisted through 2018. From 2005 to 2018, the snail-inhabited area was slightly reduced, but the area of infected snails decreased to 0 in 2012; this persisted through 2018. All counties met the goal for schistosomiasis infection control, transmission control, and disruption of schistosomiasis activity in 2008, 2013, and 2018 separately. That means the goal has been achieved in each stage. CONCLUSIONS The decline of the schistosomiasis epidemic rate demonstrates that the Chinese government was successful in meeting its public health goal in Hubei province. In the next decade, precision interventions must be implemented in endemic counties with a relatively low epidemic status to achieve the goals of the Outline of the Healthy China 2030 Plan. A similar strategy can be applied in other countries to eliminate schistosomiasis globally.
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Mtemeli FL, Ndlovu J, Mugumbate G, Makwikwi T, Shoko R. Advances in schistosomiasis drug discovery based on natural products. ALL LIFE 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/26895293.2022.2080281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- F. L. Mtemeli
- Department of Biology, School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
| | - J. Ndlovu
- Department of Biology, School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
| | - G. Mugumbate
- Department of Chemical Technology, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
| | - T. Makwikwi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - R. Shoko
- Department of Biology, School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
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Brattig NW, Bergquist R, Qian MB, Zhou XN, Utzinger J. Helminthiases in the People's Republic of China: Status and prospects. Acta Trop 2020; 212:105670. [PMID: 32841589 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Helminth infections, many of them listed as neglected tropical diseases by the World Health Organization, remain a public health issue in many parts of the world. The People's Republic of China (P.R. China) stands out due to impressive progress in the control and local elimination of helminth infections. An important contextual factor is P.R. China's sustained social and economic development that allowed implementation of health-related poverty alleviation, improving water, sanitation and hygiene, enhancing information, education and communication, coupled with major engineering and infrastructure development and intersectoral collaboration. Nonetheless, food-borne trematodiases, soil-transmitted helminthiases, echinococcosis, cysticercosis/taeniasis and schistosomiasis still exert a considerable burden in P.R. China, even though the numbers of infected people have decreased substantially since the new millennium. This special issue of Acta Tropica provides a comprehensive update of the current knowledge of the main helminth infections in P.R. China, summarises progress in research and discusses future prospects for gaining and sustaining control towards the final goal of breaking transmission and hence, eliminating helminthiases. It consists of 34 articles with a wide coverage that can be grouped into six domains: (i) epidemiological assessment and disease burden estimates; (ii) diagnostics and antigen characterisation; (iii) drug and vaccine development; (iv) host-parasite interactions and snail genetics; (v) surveillance and public health response; and (vi) capacity building and international cooperation. The control and elimination of helminthiases not only furthers the health and wellbeing of the Chinese people, but also provides innovative approaches, tools and strategies, which can be adopted and applied in other countries and regions of the world where helminthiases still prevail.
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Guo JY, Xu J, Zhang LJ, Lv S, Cao CL, Li SZ, Zhou XN. Surveillance on schistosomiasis in five provincial-level administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China in the post-elimination era. Infect Dis Poverty 2020; 9:136. [PMID: 33004080 PMCID: PMC7528395 DOI: 10.1186/s40249-020-00758-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The People’s Republic of China (P. R. China) has made significant progress on schistosomiasis control. Among the 12 provincial-level administrative divisions (PLADs) with schistosomiasis endemic in P. R. China, Guangdong, Shanghai, Fujian, Guangxi and Zhejiang PLADs (following as five PLADs) had successively eliminated schistosomiasis during 1985–1995. However, consolidation of the schistosomiasis elimination in these five PLADs remains challenging. In the current study, we sought to understand the epidemic situation in these post-elimination areas and their surveillance capabilities on schistosomiasis. Methods Annual data reflecting the interventions and surveillance on human beings, cattle and snails based on county level from 2005 to 2016 were collected through the national schistosomiasis reporting system and the data were analyzed to understand the epidemic status of schistosomiasis in the five PLADs. A standardized score sheet was designed to assess the surveillance capacity for schistosomiasis of selected disease control agencies in five PLADs and ten counties. Assessment on surveillance capacity including schistosomiasis diagnostic skills, identification of snails’ living and infection status and knowledge about schistosomiasis and its control were made. Descriptive analysis was used to analyze the epidemic status and evaluation results on surveillance capacities. Results The assessments showed that no local cases in humans and cattle or infected snail were found in these five PLADs since 2005. However, from 2005 to 2016, a total of 221 imported cases were detected in Zhejiang, Shanghai and Fujian, and 11.98 hm2 of new snail habitats were found in Zhejiang, Shanghai and Guangxi. In addition, snail infestation reoccurred in 247.55 hm2 of former snail habitats since 2011. For the surveillance capacity assessment, the accuracy rate of IHA and MHT were 100 and 89.3%, respectively. All participants could judge the living status of snails accurately and 98.1% on the infection status of snails. The accuracy rate of the questionnaire survey was 98.0%. Conclusions Elimination of schistosomiasis was consolidated successfully in five PLADs of P. R. China due to effective and strong post-elimination surveillance. Comprehensive consolidation strategies should be focused on the elimination of residual snails and the prevention of imported infection sources to consolidate the achievements of schistosomiasis control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Yi Guo
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Chinese Center for Tropical Disease Research, Shanghai, 200025, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Xu
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Chinese Center for Tropical Disease Research, Shanghai, 200025, People's Republic of China
| | - Li-Juan Zhang
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Chinese Center for Tropical Disease Research, Shanghai, 200025, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shan Lv
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Chinese Center for Tropical Disease Research, Shanghai, 200025, People's Republic of China
| | - Chun-Li Cao
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Chinese Center for Tropical Disease Research, Shanghai, 200025, People's Republic of China
| | - Shi-Zhu Li
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Chinese Center for Tropical Disease Research, Shanghai, 200025, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Nong Zhou
- National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Chinese Center for Tropical Disease Research, Shanghai, 200025, People's Republic of China
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