3D tissue-engineered model of Ewing's sarcoma

Refined culture conditions with increased physiological relevance uncover oncogene-dependent metabolic signatures in Ewing sarcoma spheroids

Ewing sarcoma (EwS) cell line culture largely relies on standard techniques, which do not recapitulate physiological conditions. Here, we report on a feasible and cost-efficient EwS cell culture technique with increased physiological relevance employing an advanced medium composition, reduced fetal calf serum, and spheroidal growth. Improved reflection of the transcriptional activity related to proliferation, hypoxia, and differentiation in EwS patient tumors was detected in EwS cells grown in this refined in vitro condition. Moreover, transcriptional signatures associated with the oncogenic activity of the EwS-specific FET::ETS fusion transcription factors in the refined culture condition were shifted from proliferative toward metabolic gene signatures. The herein-presented EwS cell culture technique with increased physiological relevance provides a broadly applicable approach for enhanced in vitro modeling relevant to advancing EwS research and the validity of experimental results.

Characterization of Vitronectin Effect in 3D Ewing Sarcoma Models: A Digital Microscopic Analysis of Two Cell Lines

Ewing sarcoma (ES) is an aggressive bone and soft-tissue pediatric cancer. High vitronectin (VN) expression has been associated with poor prognosis in other cancers, and we aimed to determine the utility of this extracellular matrix glycoprotein as a biomarker of aggressiveness in ES. Silk fibroin plus gelatin-tyramine hydrogels (HGs) were fabricated with and without cross-linked VN and cultivated with A673 and PDX73 ES cell lines for two and three weeks. VN secretion to culture media was assessed using ELISA. Morphometric analysis was applied for phenotypic characterization. VN release to culture media was higher in 3D models than in monolayer cultures, and intracellular, intercellular, and pericluster presence was also observed. A673-HGs showed lower density of clusters but a proportion of larger clusters than PDX73-HGs, which presented low cluster circularity. The cluster density of A673-HGs without added VN was higher than with added VN and slightly lower in the case of PDX73-HGs. Furthermore, a culture time of three weeks provided no benefits in cluster growth compared to two weeks, especially in A673-HGs. These advances in 3D modeling and digital quantification pave the way for future studies in ES and other cancers to deepen understanding about intra- and intercellular heterogeneity and anti-adhesion VN therapies.

Preclinical models for the study of pediatric solid tumors: focus on bone sarcomas

Sarcomas comprise between 10-15% of all pediatric malignancies. Osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma are the two most common pediatric bone tumors diagnosed in children and young adults. These tumors are commonly treated with surgery and/or radiation therapy and combination chemotherapy. However, there is a strong need for the development and utilization of targeted therapeutic methods to improve patient outcomes. Towards accomplishing this goal, pre-clinical models for these unique malignancies are of particular importance to design and test experimental therapeutic strategies prior to being introduced to patients due to their origination site and propensity to metastasize. Pre-clinical models offer several advantages for the study of pediatric sarcomas with unique benefits and shortcomings dependent on the type of model. This review addresses the types of pre-clinical models available for the study of pediatric solid tumors, with special attention to the bone sarcomas osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma.

Temozolomide resistance mechanisms: unveiling the role of translesion DNA polymerase kappa in glioblastoma spheroids in vitro

Temozolomide (TMZ) is the leading therapeutic agent for combating Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM). Nonetheless, the persistence of chemotherapy-resistant GBM cells remains an ongoing challenge, attributed to various factors, including the translesion synthesis (TLS) mechanism. TLS enables tumor cells to endure genomic damage by utilizing specialized DNA polymerases to bypass DNA lesions. Specifically, TLS polymerase Kappa (Polκ) has been implicated in facilitating DNA damage tolerance against TMZ-induced damage, contributing to a worse prognosis in GBM patients. To better understand the roles of Polκ in TMZ resistance, we conducted a comprehensive assessment of the cytotoxic, antiproliferative, antimetastatic, and genotoxic effects of TMZ on GBM (U251MG) wild-type (WTE) and TLS Polκ knockout (KO) cells, cultivated as three-dimensional (3D) tumor spheroids in vitro. Initial results revealed that TMZ: (i) induces reductions in GBM spheroid diameter (10-200 µM); (ii) demonstrates significant cytotoxicity (25-200 μM); (iii) exerts antiproliferative effects (≤25 μM) and promotes cell cycle arrest (G2/M phase) in Polκ KO spheroids when compared with WTE counterparts. Furthermore, Polκ KO spheroids exhibit elevated levels of cell death (Caspase 3/7) and display greater genotoxicity (53BP1) than WTE following TMZ exposure. Concerning antimetastatic effects, TMZ impedes invadopodia (3D invasion) more effectively in Polκ KO than in WTE spheroids. Collectively, the results suggest that TLS Polκ plays a vital role in the survival, cell death, genotoxicity, and metastatic potential of GBM spheroids in vitro when subjected to TMZ treatment. While the precise mechanisms underpinning this resistance remain elusive, TLS Polκ emerges as a potential therapeutic target for GBM patients.

Exploring the promising potential of induced pluripotent stem cells in cancer research and therapy

The advent of iPSCs has brought about a significant transformation in stem cell research, opening up promising avenues for advancing cancer treatment. The formation of cancer is a multifaceted process influenced by genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors. iPSCs offer a distinctive platform for investigating the origin of cancer, paving the way for novel approaches to cancer treatment, drug testing, and tailored medical interventions. This review article will provide an overview of the science behind iPSCs, the current limitations and challenges in iPSC-based cancer therapy, the ethical and social implications, and the comparative analysis with other stem cell types for cancer treatment. The article will also discuss the applications of iPSCs in tumorigenesis, the future of iPSCs in tumorigenesis research, and highlight successful case studies utilizing iPSCs in tumorigenesis research. The conclusion will summarize the advancements made in iPSC-based tumorigenesis research and the importance of continued investment in iPSC research to unlock the full potential of these cells.

3D tumor explant as a novel platform to investigate therapeutic pathways and predictive biomarkers in cancer patients

Immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors can induce durable clinical responses in different human malignancies but the number of responding patients remains globally modest. The limited therapeutic efficacy of ICI depends on multiple factors, among which the immune suppressive features of the tumor microenvironment play a key role. For this reason, experimental models that enable dissection of the immune-hostile tumor milieu components are required to unravel how to overcome resistance and obtain full-fledged anti-tumor immunity. Recent evidence supports the usefulness of 3D ex vivo systems in retaining features of tumor microenvironment to elucidate molecular and immunologic mechanisms of response and resistance to immune checkpoint blockade. In this perspective article we discuss the recent advances in patient-derived 3D tumor models and their potential in support of treatment decision making in clinical setting. We will also share our experience with dynamic bioreactor tumor explant culture of samples from melanoma and sarcoma patients as a reliable and promising platform to unravel immune responses to immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Eribulin activity in soft tissue sarcoma monolayer and three-dimensional cell line models: could the combination with other drugs improve its antitumoral effect?

BACKGROUND

Eribulin has shown antitumour activity in some soft tissue sarcomas (STSs), but it has only been approved for advanced liposarcoma (LPS).

METHODS

In this study, we evaluated the effect of eribulin on proliferation, migration and invasion capabilities in LPS, leiomyosarcoma (LMS) and fibrosarcoma (FS) models, using both monolayer (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) spheroid cell cultures. Additionally, we explored combinations of eribulin with other drugs commonly used in the treatment of STS with the aim of increasing its antitumour activity.

RESULTS

Eribulin showed activity inhibiting proliferation, 2D and 3D migration and invasion in most of the cell line models. Furthermore, we provide data that suggest, for the first time, a synergistic effect with ifosfamide in all models, and with pazopanib in LMS as well as in myxoid and pleomorphic LPS.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the effect of eribulin on LPS, LMS and FS cell line models. The combination of eribulin with ifosfamide or pazopanib has shown in vitro synergy, which warrants further clinical research.

In vitro three-dimensional cell cultures for bone sarcomas

Bone sarcomas are rare tumour entities that arise from the mesenchyme most of which are highly heterogeneous at the cellular, genetic and epigenetic levels. The three main types are osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, and chondrosarcoma. These oncological entities are characterised by high morbidity and mortality and an absence of significant therapeutic improvement in the last four decades. In the field of oncology, in vitro cultures of cancer cells have been extensively used for drug screening unfortunately with limited success. Indeed, despite the massive knowledge acquired from conventional 2D culture methods, scientific community has been challenged by the loss of efficacy of drugs when moved to clinical trials. The recent explosion of new 3D culture methods is paving the way to more relevant in vitro models mimicking the in vivo tumour environment (e.g. bone structure) with biological responses close to the in vivo context. The present review gives a brief overview of the latest advances of the 3D culture methods used for studying primary bone sarcomas.

Ewing Sarcoma-Diagnosis, Treatment, Clinical Challenges and Future Perspectives

Ewing sarcoma, a highly aggressive bone and soft-tissue cancer, is considered a prime example of the paradigms of a translocation-positive sarcoma: a genetically rather simple disease with a specific and neomorphic-potential therapeutic target, whose oncogenic role was irrefutably defined decades ago. This is a disease that by definition has micrometastatic disease at diagnosis and a dismal prognosis for patients with macrometastatic or recurrent disease. International collaborations have defined the current standard of care in prospective studies, delivering multiple cycles of systemic therapy combined with local treatment; both are associated with significant morbidity that may result in strong psychological and physical burden for survivors. Nevertheless, the combination of non-directed chemotherapeutics and ever-evolving local modalities nowadays achieve a realistic chance of cure for the majority of patients with Ewing sarcoma. In this review, we focus on the current standard of diagnosis and treatment while attempting to answer some of the most pressing questions in clinical practice. In addition, this review provides scientific answers to clinical phenomena and occasionally defines the resulting translational studies needed to overcome the hurdle of treatment-associated morbidities and, most importantly, non-survival.

Three-dimensional printed implant for reconstruction of pelvic bone after removal of giant chondrosarcoma: a case report

Background

Three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction has been used for various diseases, but few reports have described its application in pelvic reconstruction after removal of giant chondrosarcoma. Case reports describing the clinical application of personalized 3D-printed titanium implants are needed for future clinical reference.

Case presentation: We herein describe a 29-year-old woman with a giant chondrosarcoma treated with a personalized 3D titanium implant. The surgery was successful, and the patient recovered with significant pain relief and good functional recovery after the surgery. No implant-related complications occurred during the 12-month follow-up. The current case represents successful application of 3D printing technology to the treatment of a massive bone defect due to the removal of a giant osteoporotic tumor.

Conclusions

Personalized 3D titanium implants can be used in the reconstruction of massive bone defects after the removal of giant pelvic sarcomas. The methodology and results described in the current case report can be a used as reference in the treatment of similar cases in future.

3D Culture Modelling: An Emerging Approach for Translational Cancer Research in Sarcomas

Sarcomas are tumours of mesenchymal origin, which can arise in bone or soft tissues. They are rare but frequently quite aggressive and with a poor outcome. New approaches are needed to characterise these tumours and their resistance mechanisms to current therapies, responsible for tumour recurrence and treatment failure. This review is focused on the potential of three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models, including multicellular tumour spheroids (MCTS) and organoids, and the latest data about their utility for the study on important properties for tumour development. The use of spheroids as a particularly valuable alternative for compound high throughput screening (HTS) in different areas of cancer biology is also discussed, which enables the identification of new therapeutic opportunities in commonly resistant tumours.

Modeling the Tumor Microenvironment and Pathogenic Signaling in Bone Sarcoma

Investigations of cancer biology and screening of potential therapeutics for efficacy and safety begin in the preclinical laboratory setting. A staple of most basic research in cancer involves the use of tissue culture plates, on which immortalized cell lines are grown in monolayers. However, this practice has been in use for over six decades and does not account for vital elements of the tumor microenvironment that are thought to aid in initiation, propagation, and ultimately, metastasis of cancer. Furthermore, information gleaned from these techniques does not always translate to animal models or, more crucially, clinical trials in cancer patients. Osteosarcoma (OS) and Ewing sarcoma (ES) are the most common primary tumors of bone, but outcomes for patients with metastatic or recurrent disease have stagnated in recent decades. The unique elements of the bone tumor microenvironment have been shown to play critical roles in the pathogenesis of these tumors and thus should be incorporated in the preclinical models of these diseases. In recent years, the field of tissue engineering has leveraged techniques used in designing scaffolds for regenerative medicine to engineer preclinical tumor models that incorporate spatiotemporal control of physical and biological elements. We herein review the clinical aspects of OS and ES, critical elements present in the sarcoma microenvironment, and engineering approaches to model the bone tumor microenvironment. Impact statement The current paradigm of cancer biology investigation and therapeutic testing relies heavily on monolayer, monoculture methods developed over half a century ago. However, these methods often lack essential hallmarks of the cancer microenvironment that contribute to tumor pathogenesis. Tissue engineers incorporate scaffolds, mechanical forces, cells, and bioactive signals into biological environments to drive cell phenotype. Investigators of bone sarcomas, aggressive tumors that often rob patients of decades of life, have begun to use tissue engineering techniques to devise in vitro models for these diseases. Their efforts highlight how critical elements of the cancer microenvironment directly affect tumor signaling and pathogenesis.

Current Approaches for Personalized Therapy of Soft Tissue Sarcomas

Soft tissue sarcomas (STS) are a highly heterogeneous group of cancers of mesenchymal origin with diverse morphologies and clinical behaviors. While surgical resection is the standard treatment for primary STS, advanced and metastatic STS patients are not eligible for surgery. Systemic treatments, including standard chemotherapy and newer chemical agents, still play the most relevant role in the management of the disease. Discovery of specific genetic alterations in distinct STS subtypes allowed better understanding of mechanisms driving their pathogenesis and treatment optimization. This review focuses on the available targeted drugs or drug combinations based on genetic aberration involved in STS development including chromosomal translocations, oncogenic mutations, gene amplifications, and their perspectives in STS treatment. Furthermore, in this review, we discuss the possible use of chemotherapy sensitivity and resistance assays (CSRA) for the adjustment of treatment for individual patients. In summary, current trends in personalized management of advanced and metastatic STS are based on combination of both genetic testing and CSRA.

A two-compartment bone tumor model to investigate interactions between healthy and tumor cells

We produced a novel three-dimensional (3D) bone tumor model (BTM) to study the interactions between healthy and tumor cells in a tumor microenvironment, the migration tendency of the tumor cells, and the efficacy of an anticancer drug, Doxorubicin, on the cancer cells. The model consisted of two compartments: (a) a healthy bone tissue mimic, made of poly(lactic acid-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)/beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) sponge seeded with human fetal osteoblastic cells (hFOB) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), and (b) a tumor mimic, made of lyophilized collagen sponge seeded with human osteosarcoma cells (Saos-2). The tumor mimic component was placed into a central cavity created in the healthy bone mimic and together they constituted the complete 3D bone tumor model (3D-BTM). The porosities of both sponges were higher than 85% and the diameters of the pores were 199 ± 52 μm for the PLGA/TCP and 50-150 μm for the collagen scaffolds. The compression Young's modulus of the PLGA/TCP and the collagen sponges were determined to be 4.76 MPa and 140 kPa, respectively. Cell proliferation, morphology, calcium phosphate forming capacity and alkaline phosphatase production were studied separately on both the healthy and tumor mimics. All cells demonstrated cellular extensions and spread well in porous scaffolds indicating good cell-material interactions. Confocal microscopy analysis showed direct contact between the cells present in different parts of the 3D-BTM. Migration of HUVECs from the healthy bone mimic to the tumor compartment was confirmed by the increase in the levels of angiogenic factors vascular endothelial growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, and interleukin 8 in the tumor component. Doxorubicin (2.7 μg.ml^-1) administered to the 3D-BTM caused a seven-fold decrease in the cell number after 24 h of interaction with the anticancer drug. Caspase-3 enzyme activity assay results demonstrated apoptosis of the osteosarcoma cells. This novel 3D-BTM has a high potential for use in studying the metastatic capabilities of cancer cells, and in determining the effective drug types and combinations for personalized treatments.

3D Tissue-Engineered Tumor Model for Ewing's Sarcoma That Incorporates Bone-like ECM and Mineralization

The tumor microenvironment harbors essential components required for cancer progression including biochemical signals and mechanical cues. To study the effects of microenvironmental elements on Ewing's sarcoma (ES) pathogenesis, we tissue-engineered an acellular three-dimensional (3D) bone tumor niche from electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) scaffolds that incorporate bone-like architecture, extracellular matrix (ECM), and mineralization. PCL-ECM constructs were generated by decellularizing PCL scaffolds harboring cultures of osteogenic human mesenchymal stem cells. The PCL-ECM constructs simulated in vivo-like tumor architecture and increased the proliferation of ES cells compared to PCL scaffolds alone. Compared to monolayer controls, 3D environments facilitated the downregulation of the canonical insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) signal cascade through mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), both of which are targets of recent clinical trials. In addition to the downregulation of canonical IGF-1R signaling, 3D environments promoted a reduction in the clathrin-dependent nuclear localization and transcriptional activity of IGF-1R. In vitro drug testing revealed that 3D environments generated cell phenotypes that were resistant to mTOR inhibition and chemotherapy. Our versatile PCL-ECM constructs allow for the investigation of the roles of various microenvironmental elements in ES tumor growth, cancer cell morphology, and induction of resistant cell phenotypes.

The Role of C-X-C Chemokine Receptor Type 4 (CXCR4) in Cell Adherence and Spheroid Formation of Human Ewing's Sarcoma Cells under Simulated Microgravity

We studied the behavior of Ewing's Sarcoma cells of the line A673 under simulated microgravity (s-µg). These cells express two prominent markers-the oncogene EWS/FLI1 and the chemokine receptor CXCR4, which is used as a target of treatment in several types of cancer. The cells were exposed to s-µg in a random-positioning machine (RPM) for 24 h in the absence and presence of the CXCR4 inhibitor AMD3100. Then, their morphology and cytoskeleton were examined. The expression of selected mutually interacting genes was measured by qRT-PCR and protein accumulation was determined by western blotting. After 24 h incubation on the RPM, a splitting of the A673 cell population in adherent and spheroid cells was observed. Compared to 1 g control cells, EWS/FLI1 was significantly upregulated in the adherent cells and in the spheroids, while CXCR4 and CD44 expression were significantly enhanced in spheroids only. Transcription of CAV-1 was upregulated and DKK2 and VEGF-A were down-regulated in both, adherent in spheroid cells, respectively. Regarding, protein accumulation EWS/FLI1 was enhanced in adherent cells only, but CD44 decreased in spheroids and adherent cells. Inhibition of CXCR4 did not change spheroid count, or structure. Under s-µg, the tumor marker EWS/FLI1 is intensified, while targeting CXCR4, which influences adhesion proteins, did not affect spheroid formation.

A biomimetic 3D model of hypoxia-driven cancer progression

The fate of tumors depends both on the cancer cells' intrinsic characteristics and on the environmental conditions where the tumors reside and grow. Engineered in vitro models have led to significant advances in cancer research, allowing the investigation of cells in physiological environments and the study of disease mechanisms and processes with enhanced relevance. Here we present a biomimetic cancer model based on a collagen matrix synthesized through a biologically inspired process. We compared in this environment the responses of two breast tumor lineages characterized by different molecular patterns and opposite clinical behaviors: MCF-7 that belong to the luminal A subtype connected to an indolent course, and basal-like MDA-MB-231 connected to high-grade and aggressive disease. Cancer cells in the biomimetic matrix recreate a hypoxic environment that affects their growth dynamics and phenotypic features. Hypoxia induces apoptosis and the selection of aggressive cells that acquire expression signatures associated with glycolysis, angiogenesis, cell-matrix interaction, epithelial to mesenchymal transition and metastatic ability. In response to hypoxia MDA-MB-231 migrate on the collagen fibrils and undergo cellular senescence, while MCF-7 do not exhibit these behaviors. Our biomimetic model mimics the evolution of tumors with different grade of aggressiveness fostered by a hypoxic niche and provides a relevant technology to dissect the events involved in cancer progression.

New Advances in the Study of Bone Tumors: A Lesson From the 3D Environment

Bone primary tumors, such as osteosarcoma, are highly aggressive pediatric tumors that in 30% of the cases develop lung metastasis and are characterized by poor prognosis. Bone is also the third most common metastatic site in patients with advanced cancer and once tumor cells become homed to the skeleton, the disease is usually considered incurable, and treatment is only palliative. Bone sarcoma and bone metastasis share the same tissue microenvironment and niches. 3D cultures represent a new promising approach for the study of interactions between tumor cells and other cellular or acellular components of the tumor microenvironment (i.e., fibroblasts, mesenchymal stem cells, bone ECM). Indeed, 3D models can mimic physiological interactions that are crucial to modulate response to soluble paracrine factors, tumor drug resistance and aggressiveness and, in all, these innovative models might be able of bypassing the use of animal-based preclinical cancer models. To date, both static and dynamic 3D cell culture models have been shown to be particularly suited for screening of anticancer agents and might provide accurate information, translating in vitro cell cultures into precision medicine. In this mini-review, we will summarize the current state-of-the-art in the field of bone tumors, both primary and metastatic, illustrating the different methods and techniques employed to realize 3D cell culture systems and new results achieved in a field that paves the way toward personalized medicine.

Tissue engineered models of healthy and malignant human bone marrow

Tissue engineering is becoming increasingly successful in providing in vitro models of human tissues that can be used for ex vivo recapitulation of functional tissues as well as predictive testing of drug efficacy and safety. From simple tissue models to microphysiological platforms comprising multiple tissue types connected by vascular perfusion, these "tissues on a chip" are emerging as a fast track application for tissue engineering, with great potential for modeling diseases and supporting the development of new drugs and therapeutic targets. We focus here on tissue engineering of the hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell compartment and the malignancies that can develop in the human bone marrow. Our overall goal is to demonstrate the utility and interconnectedness of improvements in bioengineering methods developed in one area of bone marrow studies for the remaining, seemingly disparate, bone marrow fields.

3D Models of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma via Tissue Engineering

Cancer tissue engineering is an emerging multidisciplinary field aimed at growing cancerous cells onto porous biomaterial scaffolds and proper stimuli to ultimately reproduce 3D tumor tissue-like constructs in vitro. Unlike conventional 2D cell cultures and spheroids, these tissue models can reproduce cancer lesions very similar to those present in native tumor, and can be viable for some weeks, making it possible to study cancer biology phenomena and new therapies in a more reliable fashion than with conventional in vitro platforms. This chapter shows the preparation of a 3D model of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), including fabrication of a suitable scaffold, culture of PDAC cells on the scaffold, viability test, and histologic assessment.

Biomechanical forces in tissue engineered tumor models

Solid tumors are complex three-dimensional (3D) networks of cancer and stromal cells within a dynamic extracellular matrix. Monolayer cultures fail to recapitulate the native microenvironment and therefore are poor candidates for pre-clinical drug studies and studying pathways in cancer. The tissue engineering toolkit allows us to make models that better recapitulate the 3D architecture present in tumors. Moreover, the role of the mechanical microenvironment, including matrix stiffness and shear stress from fluid flow, is known to contribute to cancer progression and drug resistance. We review recent developments in tissue engineered tumor models with a focus on the role of the biomechanical forces and propose future considerations to implement to improve physiological relevance of such models.

Clinically relevant inflammatory breast cancer patient-derived xenograft-derived ex vivo model for evaluation of tumor-specific therapies

Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is a rare and aggressive presentation of invasive breast cancer with a 62% to 68% 5-year survival rate. It is the most lethal form of breast cancer, and early recognition and treatment is important for patient survival. Like non-inflammatory breast cancer, IBC comprises multiple subtypes, with the triple-negative subtype being overrepresented. Although the current multimodality treatment regime of anthracycline- and taxane-based neoadjuvant therapy, surgery, and radiotherapy has improved the outcome of patients with triple-negative IBC, overall survival continues to be worse than in patients with non-inflammatory locally advanced breast cancer. Translation of new therapies into the clinics to successfully treat IBC has been poor, in part because of the lack of in vitro preclinical models that can accurately predict the response of the original tumor to therapy. We report the generation of a preclinical IBC patient-derived xenograft (PDX)-derived ex vivo (PDXEx) model and show that it closely replicates the tissue architecture of the original PDX tumor harvested from mice. The gene expression profile of our IBC PDXEx model had a high degree of correlation to that of the original tumor. This suggests that the process of generating the PDXEx model did not significantly alter the molecular signature of the original tumor. We demonstrate a high degree of similarity in drug response profile between a PDX mouse model and our PDXEx model generated from the same original PDX tumor tissue and treated with the same panel of drugs, indicating that our PDXEx model had high predictive value in identifying effective tumor-specific therapies. Finally, we used our PDXEx model as a platform for a robotic-based high-throughput drug screen of a 386-drug anti-cancer compound library. The top candidates identified from this drug screen all demonstrated greater therapeutic efficacy than the standard-of-care drugs used in the clinic to treat triple-negative IBC, doxorubicin and paclitaxel. Our PDXEx model is simple, and we are confident that it can be incorporated into a PDX mouse system for use as a first-pass screening platform. This will permit the identification of effective tumor-specific therapies with high predictive value in a resource-, time-, and cost-efficient manner.

Sarcoma Spheroids and Organoids-Promising Tools in the Era of Personalized Medicine

Cancer treatment is rapidly evolving toward personalized medicine, which takes into account the individual molecular and genetic variability of tumors. Sophisticated new in vitro disease models, such as three-dimensional cell cultures, may provide a tool for genetic, epigenetic, biomedical, and pharmacological research, and help determine the most promising individual treatment. Sarcomas, malignant neoplasms originating from mesenchymal cells, may have a multitude of genomic aberrations that give rise to more than 70 different histopathological subtypes. Their low incidence and high level of histopathological heterogeneity have greatly limited progress in their treatment, and trials of clinical sarcoma are less frequent than trials of other carcinomas. The main advantage of 3D cultures from tumor cells or biopsy is that they provide patient-specific models of solid tumors, and they overcome some limitations of traditional 2D monolayer cultures by reflecting cell heterogeneity, native histologic architectures, and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. Recent advances promise that these models can help bridge the gap between preclinical and clinical research by providing a relevant in vitro model of human cancer useful for drug testing and studying metastatic and dormancy mechanisms. However, additional improvements of 3D models are expected in the future, specifically the inclusion of tumor vasculature and the immune system, to enhance their full ability to capture the biological features of native tumors in high-throughput screening. Here, we summarize recent advances and future perspectives of spheroid and organoid in vitro models of rare sarcomas that can be used to investigate individual molecular biology and predict clinical responses. We also highlight how spheroid and organoid culture models could facilitate the personalization of sarcoma treatment, provide specific clinical scenarios, and discuss the relative strengths and limitations of these models.

Non-invasive imaging of engineered human tumors in the living chicken embryo

The growing interest in engineered tumor models prompted us to devise a method for the non-invasive assessment of such models. Here, we report on bioluminescence imaging (BLI) for the assessment of engineered tumor models in the fertilized chicken egg, i.e, chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. One prostate cancer (PC-3) and two osteosarcoma (MG63 and HOS) cell lines were modified with luciferase reporter genes. To create engineered tumors, these cell lines were seeded either onto basement membrane extract (BME) or gelfoam scaffolds, and subsequently grafted in vivo onto the CAM. BLI enabled non-invasive, specific detection of the engineered tumors on the CAM in the living chicken embryo. Further, BLI permitted daily, quantitative monitoring of the engineered tumors over the course of up to 7 days. Data showed that an extracellular matrix (ECM) composed of BME supported growth of reporter gene marked PC-3 tumors but did not support MG63 or HOS tumor growth. However, MG63 tumors engineered on the collagen-based gelfoam ECM showed a temporal proliferation burst in MG63 tumors. Together, the data demonstrated imaging of engineered human cancer models in living chicken embryos. The combination of CAM assay and BLI holds significant potential for the examination of a broad range of engineered tumor models.

Innovative approaches to establish and characterize primary cultures: an ex vivo 3D system and the zebrafish model

Patient-derived specimens are an invaluable resource to investigate tumor biology. However, in vivo studies on primary cultures are often limited by the small amount of material available, while conventional in vitro systems might alter the features and behavior that characterize cancer cells. We present our data obtained on primary dedifferentiated liposarcoma cells cultured in a 3D scaffold-based system and injected into a zebrafish model. Primary cells were characterized in vitro for their morphological features, sensitivity to drugs and biomarker expression, and in vivo for their engraftment and invasiveness abilities. The 3D culture showed a higher enrichment in cancer cells than the standard monolayer culture and a better preservation of liposarcoma-associated markers. We also successfully grafted primary cells into zebrafish, showing their local migratory and invasive abilities. Our work provides proof of concept of the ability of 3D cultures to maintain the original phenotype of ex vivo cells, and highlights the potential of the zebrafish model to provide a versatile in vivo system for studies with limited biological material. Such models could be used in translational research studies for biomolecular analyses, drug screenings and tumor aggressiveness assays.

Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine 2015: A Year in Review

This may be the most exciting time ever for the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (TERM). After decades of progress, it has matured, integrated, and diversified into entirely new areas, and it is starting to make the pivotal shift toward translation. The most exciting science and applications continue to emerge at the boundaries of disciplines, through increasingly effective interactions between stem cell biologists, bioengineers, clinicians, and the commercial sector. In this "Year in Review," we highlight some of the major advances reported over the last year (Summer 2014-Fall 2015). Using a methodology similar to that established in previous years, we identified four areas that generated major progress in the field: (i) pluripotent stem cells, (ii) microtissue platforms for drug testing and disease modeling, (iii) tissue models of cancer, and (iv) whole organ engineering. For each area, we used some of the most impactful articles to illustrate the important concepts and results that advanced the state of the art of TERM. We conclude with reflections on emerging areas and perspectives for future development in the field.

Three-Dimensional Spheroid Cell Culture Model for Target Identification Utilizing High-Throughput RNAi Screens

The intrinsic limitations of 2D monolayer cell culture models have prompted the development of 3D cell culture model systems for in vitro studies. Multicellular tumor spheroid (MCTS) models closely simulate the pathophysiological milieu of solid tumors and are providing new insights into tumor biology as well as differentiation, tissue organization, and homeostasis. They are straightforward to apply in high-throughput screens and there is a great need for the development of reliable and robust 3D spheroid-based assays for high-throughput RNAi screening for target identification and cell signaling studies highlighting their potential in cancer research and treatment. In this chapter we describe a stringent standard operating procedure for the use of MCTS for high-throughput RNAi screens.

Bone Tumor Environment as a Potential Therapeutic Target in Ewing Sarcoma

Ewing sarcoma is the second most common pediatric bone tumor, with three cases per million worldwide. In clinical terms, Ewing sarcoma is an aggressive, rapidly fatal malignancy that mainly develops not only in osseous sites (85%) but also in extra-skeletal soft tissue. It spreads naturally to the lungs, bones, and bone marrow with poor prognosis in the two latter cases. Bone lesions from primary or secondary (metastases) tumors are characterized by extensive bone remodeling, more often due to osteolysis. Osteoclast activation and subsequent bone resorption are responsible for the clinical features of bone tumors, including pain, vertebral collapse, and spinal cord compression. Based on the “vicious cycle” concept of tumor cells and bone resorbing cells, drugs, which target osteoclasts, may be promising agents as adjuvant setting for treating bone tumors, including Ewing sarcoma. There is also increasing evidence that cellular and molecular protagonists present in the bone microenvironment play a part in establishing a favorable “niche” for tumor initiation and progression. The purpose of this review is to discuss the potential therapeutic value of drugs targeting the bone tumor microenvironment in Ewing sarcoma. The first part of the review will focus on targeting the bone resorbing function of osteoclasts by means of bisphosphonates or drugs blocking the pro-resorbing cytokine receptor activator of NF-kappa B ligand. Second, the role of this peculiar hypoxic microenvironment will be discussed in the context of resistance to chemotherapy, escape from the immune system, or neo-angiogenesis. Therapeutic interventions based on these specificities could be then proposed in the context of Ewing sarcoma.

Current status of publicly available sarcoma cell lines for use in proteomic studies

Cell lines are valuable resources for proteomic studies and can be used as tools to verify the significance of proteomic findings. Here, the authors overview the current status of the publicly available sarcoma cell lines. The authors surveyed seven major cell banks and found that the diversity observed in the sarcoma cell banks was largely insufficient; sarcoma cell lines are available for only a limited histological subtype. They also observed a number of issues with the pathological diagnosis of the cell lines, limitations in their behavioral diversity, and various unmet needs. Well characterized cell lines with accurate diagnosis based on modern diagnosis criteria should be available from public cell banks. The authors conclude that additional cell lines, along with detailed genetic and pathological analyses, should be prepared and deposited in order to promote sarcoma-specific proteomic research. The authors focused on sarcoma cell lines, but their discussion can be applied to the other cancers.

Flow perfusion effects on three-dimensional culture and drug sensitivity of Ewing sarcoma

Three-dimensional tumor models accurately describe different aspects of the tumor microenvironment and are readily available for mechanistic studies of tumor biology and for drug screening. Nevertheless, these systems often overlook biomechanical stimulation, another fundamental driver of tumor progression. To address this issue, we cultured Ewing sarcoma (ES) cells on electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) 3D scaffolds within a flow perfusion bioreactor. Flow-derived shear stress provided a physiologically relevant mechanical stimulation that significantly promoted insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) production and elicited a superadditive release in the presence of exogenous IGF1. This finding is particularly relevant, given the central role of the IGF1/IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) pathway in ES tumorigenesis and as a promising clinical target. Additionally, flow perfusion enhanced in a rate-dependent manner the sensitivity of ES cells to IGF-1R inhibitor dalotuzumab (MK-0646) and showed shear stress-dependent resistance to the IGF-1R blockade. This study demonstrates shear stress-dependent ES cell sensitivity to dalotuzumab, highlighting the importance of biomechanical stimulation on ES-acquired drug resistance to IGF-1R inhibition. Furthermore, flow perfusion increased nutrient supply throughout the scaffold, enriching ES culture over static conditions. Our use of a tissue-engineered model, rather than human tumors or xenografts, enabled precise control of the forces experienced by ES cells, and therefore provided at least one explanation for the remarkable antineoplastic effects observed by some ES tumor patients from IGF-1R targeted therapies, in contrast to the lackluster effect observed in cells grown in conventional monolayer culture.

Bioreactor-engineered cancer tissue-like structures mimic phenotypes, gene expression profiles and drug resistance patterns observed "in vivo"

Anticancer compound screening on 2D cell cultures poorly predicts "in vivo" performance, while conventional 3D culture systems are usually characterized by limited cell proliferation, failing to produce tissue-like-structures (TLS) suitable for drug testing. We addressed engineering of TLS by culturing cancer cells in porous scaffolds under perfusion flow. Colorectal cancer (CRC) HT-29 cells were cultured in 2D, on collagen sponges in static conditions or in perfused bioreactors, or injected subcutaneously in immunodeficient mice. Perfused 3D (p3D) cultures resulted in significantly higher (p < 0.0001) cell proliferation than static 3D (s3D) cultures and yielded more homogeneous TLS, with morphology and phenotypes similar to xenografts. Transcriptome analysis revealed a high correlation between xenografts and p3D cultures, particularly for gene clusters regulating apoptotic processes and response to hypoxia. Treatment with 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU), a frequently used but often clinically ineffective chemotherapy drug, induced apoptosis, down-regulation of anti-apoptotic genes (BCL-2, TRAF1, and c-FLIP) and decreased cell numbers in 2D, but only "nucleolar stress" in p3D and xenografts. Conversely, BCL-2 inhibitor ABT-199 induced cytotoxic effects in p3D but not in 2D cultures. Our findings advocate the importance of perfusion flow in 3D cultures of tumor cells to efficiently mimic functional features observed "in vivo" and to test anticancer compounds.