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Li B, Jiao S, Guo S, Xiao T, Zeng Y, Hu Y, Li X, Xiong S, Xu Y. Deep eutectic solvent self-assembled reverse nanomicelles for transdermal delivery of sparingly soluble drugs. J Nanobiotechnology 2024; 22:272. [PMID: 38773580 PMCID: PMC11106993 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-024-02552-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transdermal delivery of sparingly soluble drugs is challenging due to their low solubility and poor permeability. Deep eutectic solvent (DES)/or ionic liquid (IL)-mediated nanocarriers are attracting increasing attention. However, most of them require the addition of auxiliary materials (such as surfactants or organic solvents) to maintain the stability of formulations, which may cause skin irritation and potential toxicity. RESULTS We fabricated an amphiphilic DES using natural oxymatrine and lauric acid and constructed a novel self-assembled reverse nanomicelle system (DES-RM) based on the features of this DES. Synthesized DESs showed the broad liquid window and significantly solubilized a series of sparingly soluble drugs, and quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models with good prediction ability were further built. The experimental and molecular dynamics simulation elucidated that the self-assembly of DES-RM was adjusted by noncovalent intermolecular forces. Choosing triamcinolone acetonide (TA) as a model drug, the skin penetration studies revealed that DES-RM significantly enhanced TA penetration and retention in comparison with their corresponding DES and oil. Furthermore, in vivo animal experiments demonstrated that TA@DES-RM exhibited good anti-psoriasis therapeutic efficacy as well as biocompatibility. CONCLUSIONS The present study offers innovative insights into the optimal design of micellar nanodelivery system based on DES combining experiments and computational simulations and provides a promising strategy for developing efficient transdermal delivery systems for sparingly soluble drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Siwen Jiao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Shiqi Guo
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Ting Xiao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yao Zeng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yingwei Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Xiaojuan Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Sha Xiong
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yuehong Xu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
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Yang Y, Zhou R, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Yu J, Gu Z. Recent Advances in Oral and Transdermal Protein Delivery Systems. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202214795. [PMID: 36478123 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202214795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Protein and peptide drugs are predominantly administered by injection to achieve high bioavailability, but this greatly compromises patient compliance. Oral and transdermal drug delivery with minimal invasiveness and high adherence represent attractive alternatives to injection administration. However, oral and transdermal administration of bioactive proteins must overcome biological barriers, namely the gastrointestinal and skin barriers, respectively. The rapid development of new materials and technologies promises to address these physiological obstacles. This review provides an overview of the latest advances in oral and transdermal protein delivery, including chemical strategies, synthetic nanoparticles, medical microdevices, and biomimetic systems for oral administration, as well as chemical enhancers, physical approaches, and microneedles in transdermal delivery. We also discuss challenges and future perspectives of the field with a focus on innovation and translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinxian Yang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Advanced Drug Delivery Systems, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Ruyi Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Advanced Drug Delivery Systems, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Yanfang Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Advanced Drug Delivery Systems, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Yuqi Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Advanced Drug Delivery Systems, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.,Department of Burns and Wound Center, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310009, China
| | - Jicheng Yu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Advanced Drug Delivery Systems, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.,Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, 311121, China.,Jinhua Institute of Zhejiang University, Jinhua, 321299, China.,Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310016, China
| | - Zhen Gu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Advanced Drug Delivery Systems, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.,Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, 311121, China.,Jinhua Institute of Zhejiang University, Jinhua, 321299, China.,Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310016, China.,MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
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3
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Mahmoudinoodezh H, Telukutla SR, Bhangu SK, Bachari A, Cavalieri F, Mantri N. The Transdermal Delivery of Therapeutic Cannabinoids. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14020438. [PMID: 35214170 PMCID: PMC8876728 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14020438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, several studies have indicated an increased interest in the scientific community regarding the application of Cannabis sativa plants, and their extracts, for medicinal purposes. This plant of enormous medicinal potential has been legalised in an increasing number of countries globally. Due to the recent changes in therapeutic and recreational legislation, cannabis and cannabinoids are now frequently permitted for use in clinical settings. However, with their highly lipophilic features and very low aqueous solubility, cannabinoids are prone to degradation, specifically in solution, as they are light-, temperature-, and auto-oxidation-sensitive. Thus, plant-derived cannabinoids have been developed for oral, nasal-inhalation, intranasal, mucosal (sublingual and buccal), transcutaneous (transdermal), local (topical), and parenteral deliveries. Among these administrations routes, topical and transdermal products usually have a higher bioavailability rate with a prolonged steady-state plasma concentration. Additionally, these administrations have the potential to eliminate the psychotropic impacts of the drug by its diffusion into a nonreactive, dead stratum corneum. This modality avoids oral administration and, thus, the first-pass metabolism, leading to constant cannabinoid plasma levels. This review article investigates the practicality of delivering therapeutic cannabinoids via skin in accordance with existing literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haleh Mahmoudinoodezh
- The Pangenomics Lab, School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia; (H.M.); (S.R.T.); (A.B.)
| | - Srinivasa Reddy Telukutla
- The Pangenomics Lab, School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia; (H.M.); (S.R.T.); (A.B.)
| | | | - Ava Bachari
- The Pangenomics Lab, School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia; (H.M.); (S.R.T.); (A.B.)
| | - Francesca Cavalieri
- Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia;
| | - Nitin Mantri
- The Pangenomics Lab, School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia; (H.M.); (S.R.T.); (A.B.)
- The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
- Correspondence:
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4
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A Porous Reservoir-Backed Boronate Gel Microneedle for Efficient Skin Penetration and Sustained Glucose-Responsive Insulin Delivery. Gels 2022; 8:gels8020074. [PMID: 35200456 PMCID: PMC8871697 DOI: 10.3390/gels8020074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, phenylboronic acid (PBA) gel containing microneedle (MN) technology with acute and sustained glucose-sensitive functionality has attracted significant research attention. Herein, we report a polyvinyl alcohol(PVA)-coated MNs patch with an interconnected porous gel drug reservoir for enhanced skin penetration efficiency and mechanical strength. The hybrid MNs patch fabricated with a novel, efficient method displayed a “cake-like” two-layer structure, with the tip part being composed of boronate-containing smart gel attached to a porous gel layer as a drug reservoir. The porous structure provides the necessary structural support for skin insertion and space for insulin loading. The mechanical strength of the hybrid MNs patch was further enhanced by surface coating with crystallized PVA. Compared with MNs patches attached to hollow drug reservoirs, this hybrid MNs patch with a porous gel reservoir was shown to be able to penetrate the skin more effectively, and is promising for on-demand, long-acting transdermal insulin delivery with increased patient compliance.
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Kriplani P, Guarve K. Transdermal Drug delivery: A step towards treatment of cancer. Recent Pat Anticancer Drug Discov 2021; 17:253-267. [PMID: 34856914 DOI: 10.2174/1574892816666211202154000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transdermal drug delivery is an emerging and tempting system over oral and hypodermic drug delivery system. With the new developments in skin penetration techniques, anticancer drugs ranging from hydrophilic macromolecules to lipophilic drugs can be administered via transdermal route to treat cancer. OBJECTIVE In the present review, various approaches to enhance the transdermal delivery of drugs is discussed including the micro and nanotechnology based transdermal formulations like chemotherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, phototherapy, vaccines and medical devices. Limitations and advantages of various transdermal technologies is also elaborated. METHOD In this review, patent applications and recent literature of transdermal drug delivery systems employed to cure mainly cancer are covered. RESULTS Transdermal drug delivery systems have proved their potential to cure cancer. They increase the bioavailability of drug by site specific drug delivery and can reduce the side effects/toxicity associated with anticancer drugs. CONCLUSION The potential of transdermal drug delivery systems to carry the drug may unclutter novel ways for therapeutic intercessions in various tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Kriplani
- Guru Gobind Singh College of Pharmacy, Yamuna Nagar 135001, Haryana. India
| | - Kumar Guarve
- Guru Gobind Singh College of Pharmacy, Yamuna Nagar 135001, Haryana. India
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Magnani JS, Montazami R, Hashemi NN. Recent Advances in Microfluidically Spun Microfibers for Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery Applications. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2021; 14:185-205. [PMID: 33940929 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-090420-101138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the unique and tunable properties of microfluidically spun microfibers have led to tremendous advancements for the field of biomedical engineering, which have been applied to areas such as tissue engineering, wound dressing, and drug delivery, as well as cell encapsulation and cell seeding. In this article, we analyze the most recent advances in microfluidics and microfluidically spun microfibers, with an emphasis on biomedical applications. We explore in detail these new and innovative experiments, how microfibers are made, the experimental purpose of making microfibers, and the future work that can be done as a result of these new types of microfibers. We also focus on the applications of various materials used to fabricate microfibers, as well as their many promises and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Scott Magnani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA;
| | - Reza Montazami
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA;
| | - Nicole N Hashemi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA;
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
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Dolz-Pérez I, Sallam MA, Masiá E, Morelló-Bolumar D, Pérez Del Caz MD, Graff P, Abdelmonsif D, Hedtrich S, Nebot VJ, Vicent MJ. Polypeptide-corticosteroid conjugates as a topical treatment approach to psoriasis. J Control Release 2019; 318:210-222. [PMID: 31843640 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Topical treatment of mild-to-moderate psoriasis with corticosteroids suffers from challenges that include reduced drug bioavailability at the desired site of action. The retention of therapeutics within the epidermis can safely treat skin inflammation, scaling, and erythema associated with psoriasis while avoiding possible side effects associated with systemic treatments. We successfully synthesized and characterized a pH-responsive biodegradable poly-L-glutamic acid (PGA)-fluocinolone acetonide (FLUO) conjugate that allows the controlled release of the FLUO to reduce skin inflammation. Additionally, the application of a hyaluronic acid (HA)-poly-L-glutamate cross polymer (HA-CP) vehicle boosted skin permeation. During in vitro and ex vivo analyses, we discovered that PGA-FLUO inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokine release, suggesting that polypeptidic conjugation fails to affect the anti-inflammatory activity of FLUO. Additionally, ex vivo human skin permeation studies using confocal microscopy revealed the presence of PGA-FLUO within the epidermis, but a minimal presence in the dermis, thereby reducing the likelihood of FLUO entering the systemic circulation. Finally, we demonstrated that PGA-FLUO applied within HA-CP effectively reduced psoriasis-associated phenotypes in an in vivo mouse model of human psoriasis while also lowering levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in tissue and serum. Overall, our experimental results demonstrate that PGA-FLUO within an HA-CP penetration enhancer represents an effective topical treatment for psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Dolz-Pérez
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Av. Eduardo Primo Yúfera 3, Valencia 46012, Spain
| | - Marwa A Sallam
- Department of Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, El Sultan Hussein St Azarita, Egypt; John A. Paulson school of engineering and applied sciences and Wyss institute for biologically inspired engineering, Harvard University, 52 Oxford St, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Esther Masiá
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Av. Eduardo Primo Yúfera 3, Valencia 46012, Spain; Screening Platform, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Av. Eduardo Primo Yúfera 3, Valencia 46012, Spain
| | - Daniel Morelló-Bolumar
- Polypeptide Therapeutic Solutions S.L. C/ Benjamin Franklin 19 (Paterna), Valencia 46980, Spain
| | - M Dolores Pérez Del Caz
- Servicio de cirugía plástica, Hospital Universitario y Politécnico La Fe, Av. de Fernando Abril Martorell 106, Valencia 46026, Spain
| | - Patrick Graff
- Institute of Pharmacy (Pharmacology and Toxicology), Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise Str. 2+4, Berlin 14195, Germany
| | - Doaa Abdelmonsif
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, El Sultan Hussein St Azarita, Egypt
| | - Sarah Hedtrich
- Institute of Pharmacy (Pharmacology and Toxicology), Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise Str. 2+4, Berlin 14195, Germany; Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2405 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Vicent J Nebot
- Polypeptide Therapeutic Solutions S.L. C/ Benjamin Franklin 19 (Paterna), Valencia 46980, Spain.
| | - María J Vicent
- Polymer Therapeutics Laboratory, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Av. Eduardo Primo Yúfera 3, Valencia 46012, Spain; Screening Platform, Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Av. Eduardo Primo Yúfera 3, Valencia 46012, Spain.
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Dardano P, Battisti M, Rea I, Serpico L, Terracciano M, Cammarano A, Nicolais L, Stefano L. Polymeric Microneedle Arrays: Versatile Tools for an Innovative Approach to Drug Administration. ADVANCED THERAPEUTICS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/adtp.201900036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Principia Dardano
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems Via P. Castellino 111 80131 Napoli Italy
| | | | - Ilaria Rea
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems Via P. Castellino 111 80131 Napoli Italy
| | - Luigia Serpico
- University of Naples “Federico II”Department of Chemistry Via Cinthia 80126 Napoli Italy
| | | | | | | | - Luca Stefano
- Institute for Microelectronics and Microsystems Via P. Castellino 111 80131 Napoli Italy
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9
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Yang G, Chen Q, Wen D, Chen Z, Wang J, Chen G, Wang Z, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Hu Q, Zhang L, Gu Z. A Therapeutic Microneedle Patch Made from Hair-Derived Keratin for Promoting Hair Regrowth. ACS NANO 2019; 13:4354-4360. [PMID: 30942567 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b09573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Activating hair follicle stem cells (HFSCs) to promote hair follicle regrowth holds promise for hair loss therapy, while challenges still remain to develop a scenario that enables enhanced therapeutic efficiency and easy administration. Here we describe a detachable microneedle patch-mediated drug delivery system, mainly made from hair-derived keratin, for sustained delivery of HFSC activators. It was demonstrated that this microneedle device integrated with mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes and a small molecular drug, UK5099, could enhance the treatment efficiency at a reduced dosage, leading to promoted pigmentation and hair regrowth within 6 days through two rounds of administration in a mouse model. This microneedle-based transdermal drug delivery approach shows augmented efficacy compared to the subcutaneous injection of exosomes and topical administration of UK5099.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang Yang
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology , Donghua University , Shanghai , 201620 , People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Chen
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
| | - Di Wen
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
| | - Zhaowei Chen
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
| | - Jinqiang Wang
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
| | - Guojun Chen
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
| | - Zejun Wang
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
| | - Xudong Zhang
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
| | - Yuqi Zhang
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
| | - Quanyin Hu
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
| | - Liang Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Shanghai , 200031 , People's Republic of China
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration , Chinese Academy of Sciences , 1 Beichen West Road, Chaoyang District , Beijing , 100101 , People's Republic of China
- Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences-Changzheng Hospital Joint Center for Translational Research , Institutes for Translational Research (CAS-SMMU) , Shanghai , 200433 , People's Republic of China
| | - Zhen Gu
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center and Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics , University of California , Los Angeles , California 90095 , United States
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , United States
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