Thin films as an emerging platform for drug delivery

The dawning era of oral thin films for nutraceutical delivery: From laboratory to clinic

Oral thin films (OTFs) are innovative dosage forms that have gained tremendous attention for the delivery of nutraceuticals. They are ultra-thin, flexible sheets that can be easily placed on the tongue, sublingual or buccal mucosa (inner lining of the cheek). These thin films possess several advantages for nutraceutical delivery including ease of administration, rapid disintegration, fast absorption, rapid onset of action, bypass first-pass hepatic metabolism, accurate dosing, enhanced stability, portability, discreetness, dose flexibility and most importantly consumer acceptance. This review highlights the utilization OTFs for nutraceutical delivery, their composition, criteria for excipient selection, methods of development and quality-based design (QbD) approach to achieve quality product. We have also provided recent case studies representing OTFs as promising platform in delivery of nutraceuticals (plant extracts, bioactive molecules, vitamins, minerals and protein/peptides) and probiotics. Finally, we provided advancement in technologies, recent patents, market analysis, challenges and future perspectives associated with this unique dosage form.

Evaluation of the responsiveness pattern to caffeine through a smart data-driven ECG non-linear multi-band analysis

This study aimed to explore more efficient ways of administering caffeine to the body by investigating the impact of caffeine on the modulation of the nervous system's activity through the analysis of electrocardiographic signals (ECG). An ECG non-linear multi-band analysis using Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) was employed to extract various features from healthy individuals exposed to different caffeine consumption methods: expresso coffee (EC), decaffeinated coffee (ED), Caffeine Oral Films (OF_caffeine), and placebo OF (OF_placebo). Non-linear feature distributions representing every ECG minute time series have been selected by PCA with different variance percentages to serve as inputs for 23 machine learning models in a leave-one-out cross-validation process for analyzing the behavior differences between ED/EC and OF_placebo/OF_caffeine groups, respectively, over time. The study generated 50-point accuracy curves per model, representing the discrimination power between groups throughout the 50 min. The best model accuracies for ED/EC varied between 30 and 70 %, (using the decision tree classifier) and OF_placebo/OF_caffeine ranged from 62 to 84 % (using Fine Gaussian). Notably, caffeine delivery through OFs demonstrated effective capacity compared to its placebo counterpart, as evidenced by significant differences in accuracy curves between OF_placebo/OF_caffeine. Caffeine delivery via OFs also exhibited rapid dissolution efficiency and controlled release rate over time, distinguishing it from EC. The study supports the potential of caffeine delivery through Caffeine OFs as a superior technology compared to traditional methods by means of ECG analysis. It highlights the efficiency of OFs in controlling the release of caffeine and underscores their promise for future caffeine delivery systems.

Postbiotics-peptidoglycan, lipoteichoic acid, exopolysaccharides, surface layer protein and pili proteins-Structure, activity in wounds and their delivery systems

Chronic wound healing is a pressing global public health concern. Abuse and drug resistance of antibiotics are the key problems in the treatment of chronic wounds at present. Postbiotics are a novel promising strategy. Previous studies have reported that postbiotics have a wide range of biological activities including antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory abilities. However, several aspects related to these postbiotic activities remain unexplored or poorly known. Therefore, this work aims to outline general aspects and emerging trends in the use of postbiotics for wound healing, such as the production, characterization, biological activities and delivery strategies of postbiotics. In this review, a comprehensive overview of the physiological activities and structures of postbiotic biomolecules that contribute to wound healing is provided, such as peptidoglycan, lipoteichoic acid, bacteriocins, exopolysaccharides, surface layer proteins, pili proteins, and secretory proteins (p40 and p75 proteins). Considering the presence of readily degradable components in postbiotics, potential natural polymer delivery materials and delivery systems are emphasized, followed by the potential applications and commercialization prospects of postbiotics. These findings suggest that the treatment of chronic wounds with postbiotic ingredients will help provide new insights into wound healing and better guidance for the development of postbiotic products.

Assessment of Alginate Gel Films as the Orodispersible Dosage Form for Meloxicam

The aim of this study was to obtain films based on sodium alginate (SA) for disintegration in the oral cavity. The films were prepared with a solvent-casting method, and meloxicam (MLX) as the active ingredient was suspended in a 3% sodium alginate solution. Two different solid-dosage-form additives containing different disintegrating agents, i.e., VIVAPUR 112® (MCC; JRS Pharma, Rosenberg, Germany) and Prosolve EASYtabs SP® (MIX; JRS Pharma, Rosenberg, Germany), were used, and four different combinations of drying time and temperature were tested. The influence of the used disintegrant on the properties of the ODFs (orodispersible films) was investigated. The obtained films were studied for their appearance, elasticity, mass uniformity, water content, meloxicam content and, finally, disintegration time, which was studied using two different methods. The films obtained with the solvent-casting method were flexible and homogeneous in terms of MLX content. Elasticity was slightly better when MIX was used as a disintegrating agent. However, these samples also revealed worse uniformity and mechanical durability. It was concluded that the best properties of the films were achieved using the mildest drying conditions. The type of the disintegrating agent had no effect on the amount of water remaining in the film after drying. The water content depended on the drying conditions. The disintegration time was not affected by the disintegrant type, but some differences were observed when various drying conditions were applied. However, regardless of the formulation type and manufacturing conditions, the analyzed films could not be classified as fast disintegrating films, as the disintegration time exceeded 30 s in all of the tested formulations.

Physical and mechanical properties of ocular thin films: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The ocular thin film presents a potential solution for addressing challenges to ocular drug delivery. In this review, we summarise the findings of a comprehensive review analysing 336 formulations from 68 studies. We investigated the physical and mechanical properties of ocular thin films, categorised into natural polymer-based, synthetic polymer-based, and combined polymer films. The results showed that the type of polymers used impacted mucoadhesion force, moisture absorption:moisture loss ratio, pH, swelling index, and elongation percentage. Significant relationships were found between these properties within each subgroup. The results also highlighted the influence of plasticisers on elongation percentage, mucoadhesion force, swelling index, and moisture absorption:moisture loss ratio. These findings have implications for designing and optimising ocular drug formulations and selecting appropriate plasticisers to achieve formulations with the desired properties.

Incorporation of Loratadine-Cyclodextrin Complexes in Oral Thin Films for Rapid Drug Delivery

Rapidly dissolving polymer thin films, or oral thin films (OTFs), have recently emerged as an improved oral drug delivery vehicle with its ability to bypass liver first pass metabolism, longer shelf-life, and simpler transport and distribution requirements, compared to traditional tablets and liquid formulations. Loratadine (LOR), an antihistamine commonly used to treat allergic rhinitis, undergoes liver first pass metabolism and is a prime candidate for incorporation within an OTF. However, loratadine is a BCS II drug with low aqueous solubility. Herein, the solubility of loratadine was improved by complexation with methyl β-cyclodextrin (MBCD) by co-evaporation of 2:1, 1:1, and 1:2 LOR:MBCD ratios and incorporation into a pullulan-based OTF at 4 wt% by solvent casting at 50 °C for 30 - 35 min. A therapeutically relevant 10 mg LOR dose could be prepared in a 3 cm by 3 cm OTF. The feasibility of complexation was observed with a Bs-type phase solubility diagram, and complexation itself was confirmed via differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) by disappearance of the LOR melting peak, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) by shifting of the C=O peak, via 1H NMR spectroscopy by downfield shifting and change in peak multiplicity of the LOR aromatic protons, and via diffusion-ordered spectroscopy by a decrease in the diffusion coefficient of LOR:MBCD complex. LOR:MBCD could be incorporated homogeneously throughout an OTF, and LOR:MBCD OTFs exhibited reasonable mechanical strength and endured 12 ± 3 folds before breaking. LOR:MBCD OTFs disintegrated within 38 ± 10 s. The cumulative in vitro release of LOR:MBCD OTFs peaked at 80 % within 3-4 min of dissolution, and LOR in LOR:MBCD OTFs exhibited permeability across a 0.22 μm nitrocellulose membrane, demonstrating its applicability as a rapid drug delivery vehicle.

Design, optimization and pharmaceutical characterization of wound healing film dressings with chloramphenicol and ibuprofen

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to develop and optimize a wound dressing film loaded with chloramphenicol (CAM) and ibuprofen (IBU) using a Quality by Design (QbD) approach.

SIGNIFICANCE

The two drugs have been combined in the same dressing as they address two critical aspects of the wound healing process, namely prevention of bacterial infection and reduction of inflammation and pain related to injury.

METHODS

Three critical formulation variables were identified, namely the ratios of Kollicoat SR 30D, polyethylene glycol 400 and polyvinyl alcohol. These variables were further considered as factors of an experimental design, and 17 formulations loaded with CAM and IBU were prepared via solvent casting. The films were characterized in terms of dimensions, mechanical properties and bioadhesion. Additionally, the optimal formulation was characterized regarding tensile properties, swelling behavior, water vapor transmission rate, surface morphology, thermal behavior, goniometry, in vitro drug release, cell viability, and antibacterial activity.

RESULTS

The film was optimized by setting minimal values for the folding endurance, adhesive force and hardness. The optimally formulated film showed good fluid handling properties in terms of swelling behavior and water vapor transmission rate. IBU and CAM were released from the film up to 80.9% and 82.5% for 8 h. The film was nontoxic, and the antibacterial activity was prominent against Micrococcus spp. and Streptococcus pyogenes.

CONCLUSIONS

The QbD approach was successfully implemented to develop and optimize a novel film dressing promising for the treatment of low-exuding acute wounds prone to infection and inflammation.

Sweeteners in Orodispersible Films: How Much is too Much?

Four natural sweeteners (sucrose, xylitol, fructose, and isomalt) were selected to examine the influence of their qualities and amounts on the characteristics of orodispersible films. Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (2% w/w) was utilized as the film-forming polymer and 1% w/w glycerol as a plasticizer. Films were produced through the solvent casting method, rendering them suitable for convenient application in community or hospital pharmacy settings. The physicochemical and optical properties of the films were analyzed, and Fourier-transform infrared analysis was carried out. All films exhibited acceptable disintegration time, uniformity of mass, thickness, and optical characteristics, with significant dependence (p<0.05) on both sweetener type and quantity. Disintegration time varied based on the employed method, as well as the characteristics and amount of sweetener. Additionally, all films maintained pH values within the oral cavity range, suggesting no potential irritancy upon administration. Fourier-transform infrared analysis confirmed the formation of the film and demonstrated compatibility between its components.

Carrageenan-xanthan nanocomposite film with improved bioadhesion and permeation profile in human skin: A cutaneous-friendly platform for ketoprofen local delivery

Ketoprofen (KET), commonly used for inflammation in clinical settings, leads to systemic adverse effects with prolonged use, mitigated by topical administration. Nanotechnology-based cutaneous forms, like films, may enhance KET efficacy. Therefore, this study aimed to prepare and characterize films containing KET nanoemulsions (F-NK) regarding mechanical properties, chemical composition and interactions, occlusive potential, bioadhesion, drug permeation in human skin, and safety. The films were prepared using a κ-carrageenan and xanthan gum blend (2 % w/w, ratio 3: 1) plasticized with glycerol through the solvent casting method. Non-nanoemulsioned KET films (F-K) were prepared for comparative purposes. F-NK was flexible and hydrophilic, exhibited higher drug content and better uniformity (94.40 ± 3.61 %), maintained the NK droplet size (157 ± 12 nm), and was thinner and lighter than the F-K. This film also showed increased tensile strength and Young's modulus values, enhanced bioadhesion and occlusive potential, and resulted in more of the drug in the human skin layers. Data also suggested that nano-based formulations are homogeneous and more stable than F-KET. Hemolysis and chorioallantoic membrane tests suggested the formulations' safety. Thus, the nano-based film is suitable for cutaneous KET delivery, which may improve the drug's efficacy in managing inflammatory conditions.

Combining the potential of 3D printed buccal films and nanostructured lipid carriers for personalised cannabidiol delivery

Cannabidiol (CBD) has been recognized for its numerous therapeutic benefits, such as neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory effects, and cardioprotection. However, CBD has some limitations, including unpredictable pharmacokinetics and low oral bioavailability. To overcome the challenges associated with CBD delivery, we employed Design of Experiments (DoE), lipid carriers, and 3D printing techniques to optimize and develop buccal film loaded with CBD-NLCs. Three-factor Box-Behnken Design was carried out to optimise the NLCs and analyse the effect of independent factors on dependent factors. The emulsification-ultrasonication technique was used to prepare the NLCs. A pressure-assisted micro-syringe printing technique was used to produce the films. The produced films were studied for physicochemical, and mechanical properties, release profiles, and predicted in vivo performance. The observed particle size of the NLCs ranged from 12.17 to 84.91 nm whereas the PDI varied from 0.099 to 0.298. Lipid and sonication time positively affected the particle size whereas the surfactant concentration was inversely related. CBD was incorporated into the optimal formulation and the observed particle size, PDI, and zeta potential for the CBD-NLCs were 94.2 ± 0.47 nm, 0.11 ± 0.01 and - 11.8 ± 0.52 mV. Hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC)-based gel containing the CBD-NLCs was prepared and used as a feed for 3D printing. The CBD-NLCs film demonstrated a slow and sustained in vitro release profile (84. 11 ± 7.02% in 6 h). The predicted AUC0-10 h, Cmax, and Tmax were 201.5 µg·h/L, 0.74 µg/L, and 1.28 h for a film with 0.4 mg of CBD, respectively. The finding demonstrates that a buccal film of CBD-NLCs can be fabricated using 3D printing.

Nanonization and Deformable Behavior of Fattigated Peptide Drug in Mucoadhesive Buccal Films

This study was tasked with the design of mucoadhesive buccal films (MBFs) containing a peptide drug, leuprolide (LEU), or its diverse nanoparticles (NPs), for enhanced membrane permeability via self-assembled nanonization and deformable behavior. An LEU-oleic acid conjugate (LOC) and its self-assembled NPs (LON) were developed. Additionally, a deformable variant of LON (d-LON) was originally developed by incorporating l-α-phosphatidylcholine into LON as an edge activator. The physicochemical properties of LON and d-LON, encompassing particle size, zeta potential, and deformability index (DI), were evaluated. MBFs containing LEU, LOC, and NPs (LON, d-LON) were prepared using the solvent casting method by varying the ratio of Eudragit RLPO and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, with propylene glycol used as a plasticizer. The optimization of MBF formulations was based on their physicochemical properties, including in vitro residence time, dissolution, and permeability. The dissolution results demonstrated that the conjugation of oleic acid to LEU exhibited a more sustained LEU release pattern by cleaving the ester bond of the conjugate, as compared to the native LEU, with reduced variability. Moreover, the LOC and its self-assembled NPs (LON, d-LON), equivalent to 1 mg LEU doses in MBF, exhibited an amorphous state and demonstrated better permeability through the nanonization process than LEU alone, regardless of membrane types. The incorporation of lauroyl-L-carnitine into the films as a permeation enhancer synergistically augmented drug permeability. Most importantly, the d-LON-loaded buccal films showed the highest permeability, due to the deformability of NPs. Overall, MBF-containing peptide NPs and permeation enhancers have the potential to replace parenteral LEU administration by improving LEU druggability and patient compliance.

Strategies to address key challenges of metallacycle/metallacage-based supramolecular coordination complexes in biomedical applications

Owing to their capacity for dynamically linking two or more functional molecules, supramolecular coordination complexes (SCCs), exemplified by two-dimensional (2D) metallacycles and three-dimensional (3D) metallacages, have gained increasing significance in biomedical applications. However, their inherent hydrophobicity and self-assembly driven by heavy metal ions present common challenges in their applications. These challenges can be overcome by enhancing the aqueous solubility and in vivo circulation stability of SCCs, alongside minimizing their side effects during treatment. Addressing these challenges is crucial for advancing the fundamental research of SCCs and their subsequent clinical translation. In this review, drawing on extensive contemporary research, we offer a thorough and systematic analysis of the strategies employed by SCCs to surmount these prevalent yet pivotal obstacles. Additionally, we explore further potential challenges and prospects for the broader application of SCCs in the biomedical field.

Dynamic diffusive interfacial transport (D-DIT): A novel quantitative swelling technique for developing binary phase diagrams of aqueous surfactant systems

Current methods to develop surfactant phase diagrams are time-intensive and fail to capture the kinetics of phase evolution. Here, the design and performance of a quantitative swelling technique to study the dynamic phase behavior of surfactants are described. The instrument combines cross-polarized optical and short-wave infrared imaging to enable high-resolution, high-throughput, and in situ identification of phases and water compositions. Data across the entire composition spectrum for the dynamics and phase evolution of a binary aqueous non-ionic surfactant solution at two isotherms are presented. This instrument provides pathways to develop non-equilibrium phase diagrams of surfactant systems-critical to predicting the outcomes of formulation and processing. It can be applied to study time-dependent material relationships across a diverse range of materials and processes, including the dissolution of surfactant droplets and the drying of aqueous polymer films.

Printing a cure: A tailored solution for localized drug delivery in liver cancer treatment

Adjuvant chemotherapy is highly recommended for liver cancer to enhance survival rates due to its tendency to recur frequently. Localized drug-eluting implants have gained traction as an alternative to overcome the limitations of systemic chemotherapy. This work describes the development of biodegradable 3D printed (3DP) bilayer films loaded with 5-fluorouracil (5FU) and cisplatin (Cis) with different infill percentages where the 5FU layers were 40%, 30%, and 30% and Cis layers were 10%, 15%, and 10% for films A, B, and C, respectively. The relevant characterization tests were performed, and the drug content of films was 0.68, 0.50, and 0.50 mg of 5FU and 0.39, 0.80, and 0.34 mg of Cis for films A, B, and C, respectively. Cis release was affected by the alterations to the film design, where films A, B, and C showed complete release at 12, 14, and 23 days, respectively. However, 5FU was released over 24 h for all films. The films were stable for up to two weeks after storage at 25 °C/65% relative humidity and four weeks at 4 °C where drug content, tensile strength, FTIR, and thermal analysis results demonstrated negligible alterations. The cytotoxicity of the films was assessed by MTS assays using HepG2 cell lines demonstrating up to 81% reduction in cell viability compared to blank films. Moreover, apoptosis was confirmed by Western Blots and the determination of mitochondrial cell potential, highlighting the potential of these films as a promising approach in adjuvant chemotherapy.

Nano-enabled antimicrobial thin films: design and mechanism of action

Antimicrobial thin films are types of protective coatings that are applied to surfaces such as medical devices, food packaging materials, water-resistant coatings, and other systems. These films prevent and reduce the spread of microbial organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Antimicrobial thin films can be prepared from a variety of nanostructured materials including metal nanoparticles, metal oxides, plant materials, enzymes, bacteriocins and polymers. Their antimicrobial mechanism varies mostly based on the types of active agents from which the film is made of. Antimicrobial thin films are becoming increasingly popular microbial treatment methods due to their advantages such as enhanced stability, reduced toxicity levels, extended effectiveness over time and broad spectrum antimicrobial action without side effects on human health or the environment. This popularity and enhanced performance is mainly due to the extended possibility of film designs. Thin films offer convenient formulation methods which makes them suitable for commercial practices aiming at high turnover rates along with residential applications requiring frequent application cycles. This review focuses on recent developments in the possible processing methods and design approaches for assembling the various types of antimicrobial materials into nanostructured thin film-based delivery systems, along with mechanisms of action against microbes.

Xanthan-carrageenan film containing sesame seed oil: A nanocomposite pharmaceutical platform for trichomoniasis treatment

Trichomoniasis is a common sexually transmitted infection that poses significant complications for women. Challenges in treatment include adverse effects and resistance to standard antimicrobial agents. Given this context, a sesame seed oil nanoemulsion (SONE) was developed and showed anti-Trichomonas vaginalis activity. To facilitate the local application of SONE, a polysaccharide film was developed using xanthan gum (XG) and κ-carrageenan gum (CG). A blend of XG and CG (at 2 %, ratio 1:3) plasticized with glycerol produced a more promising film (XCF) than using the gums individually. The film containing SONE (SONE-XCF) was successfully obtained by replacing the aqueous solvent with SONE via solvent evaporation technique. The hydrophilic SONE-XCF exhibited homogeneity and suitable mechanical properties for vaginal application. Furthermore, SONE-XCF demonstrated mucoadhesive properties and high absorption capacity for excessive vaginal fluids produced in vaginitis. It also had a disintegration time of over 8 h, indicating long retention at the intended site of action. Hemolysis and chorioallantoic membrane tests confirmed the safety of the film. Therefore, SONE-XCF is a biocompatible film with a natural composition and inherent activity against T. vaginalis, possessing exceptional characteristics that make it appropriate for vaginal application, offering an interesting alternative for trichomoniasis treatment.

Influence of cellulose viscosity on the physical, mechanical, and barrier properties of the chitosan-based films

This research paper presents a comprehensive investigation into developing biodegradable films for food packaging applications using chitosan (CN) in conjunction with three distinct types of cellulose (CE), each characterized by varying viscosities. The primary objective was to assess the influence of cellulose viscosity on the physical, mechanical, and barrier properties of the resulting films. The medium-viscosity cellulose imparted numerous advantageous qualities to the biodegradable films. These films exhibited optimal thickness (31 μm), ensuring versatility in food packaging while maintaining favorable mechanical properties, blending strength, and flexibility. Also, medium-viscosity cellulose significantly improved the films' barrier performance, particularly regarding oxygen permeability [1.80 × 10-6 (g.mm.m-2. s-1)]. Furthermore, the medium-viscosity cellulose contributed to superior moisture-related properties, including reduced water vapor permeability [14.80 × 10-9 (g.mm.m-2. s-1. Pa-1)], moisture content (13.22 %), and water solubility (22.87 %), while maintaining an appropriate degree of swelling (41.88 %). Moreover, the study employed advanced analytical techniques, including FTIR, XRD, and TGA, to provide critical insights into the films' chemical, structural, and thermal aspects. This research underscored the importance of the viscosity of film formulation materials as a crucial element in designing and efficiently producing films for food packaging.

Exploring the vast potentials and probable limitations of novel and nanostructured implantable drug delivery systems for cancer treatment

Conventional cancer chemotherapy regimens, albeit successful to some extent, suffer from some significant drawbacks, such as high-dose requirements, limited bioavailability, low therapeutic indices, emergence of multiple drug resistance, off-target distribution, and adverse effects. The main goal of developing implantable drug delivery systems (IDDS) is to address these challenges and maintain anti-cancer drugs directly at the intended sites of therapeutic action while minimizing inevitable side effects. IDDS possess numerous advantages over conventional drug delivery, including controlled drug release patterns, one-time drug administration, as well as loading and stabilizing poorly water-soluble chemotherapy drugs. Here, we summarized conventional and novel (three-dimensional (3D) printing and microfluidic) preparation techniques of different IDDS, including nanofibers, films, hydrogels, wafers, sponges, and osmotic pumps. These systems could be designed with high biocompatibility and biodegradability features using a wide variety of natural and synthetic polymers. We also reviewed the published data on these systems in cancer therapy with a particular focus on their release behavior. Various release profiles could be attained in IDDS, which enable predictable, adjustable, and sustained drug releases. Furthermore, multi-step or stimuli-responsive drug release could be obtained in these systems. The studies mentioned in this article have proven the effectiveness of IDDS for treating different cancer types with high prevalence, including breast cancer, and aggressive cancer types, such as glioblastoma and liver cancer. Additionally, the challenges in applying IDDS for efficacious cancer therapy and their potential future developments are also discussed. Considering the high potential of IDDS for further advancements, such as programmable release and degradation features, further clinical trials are needed to ensure their efficiency. The overall goal of this review is to expand our understanding of the behavior of commonly investigated IDDS and to identify the barriers that should be addressed in the pursuit of more efficient therapies for cancer. See also the graphical abstract(Fig. 1).

Sustainable Cellulose-Derived Organic Photonic Gels with Tunable and Dynamic Structural Color

Structural color is a fascinating optical phenomenon arising from intricate light-matter interactions. Biological structural colors from natural polymers are invaluable in biomimetic design and sustainable construction. Here, we report a renewable, abundant, and biodegradable cellulose-derived organic gel that generates stable cholesteric liquid crystal structures with vivid structural colors. We construct the chromatic gel using a 68 wt % hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) matrix, incorporating distinct polyethylene glycol (PEG) guest molecules. The PEGs contain peculiar end groups with tailored polarity, allowing for precise positioning on the HPC helical backbone through electrostatic repulsion between the PEG and HPC chains. This preserves the HPC's chiral nematic phase without being disrupted. We demonstrate that the PEGs' polarity tunes the HPC gel's reflective color. Additionally, gels with variable polarities are highly sensitive to temperature, pressure, and stretching, resulting in rapid, continuous, and reversible color changes. These exceptional dynamic traits establish the chiral nematic gel as an outstanding candidate for next-generation applications across displays, wearables, flexible electronics, health monitoring, and multifunctional sensors.

Electroactive Polymers for On-Demand Drug Release

Conductive materials have played a significant role in advancing society into the digital era. Such materials are able to harness the power of electricity and are used to control many aspects of daily life. Conductive polymers (CPs) are an emerging group of polymers that possess metal-like conductivity yet retain desirable polymeric features, such as processability, mechanical properties, and biodegradability. Upon receiving an electrical stimulus, CPs can be tailored to achieve a number of responses, such as harvesting energy and stimulating tissue growth. The recent FDA approval of a CP-based material for a medical device has invigorated their research in healthcare. In drug delivery, CPs can act as electrical switches, drug release is achieved at a flick of a switch, thereby providing unprecedented control over drug release. In this review, recent developments in CP as electroactive polymers for voltage-stimuli responsive drug delivery systems are evaluated. The review demonstrates the distinct drug release profiles achieved by electroactive formulations, and both the precision and ease of stimuli response. This level of dynamism promises to yield "smart medicines" and warrants further research. The review concludes by providing an outlook on electroactive formulations in drug delivery and highlighting their integral roles in healthcare IoT.

The Fate of 1,8-cineole as a Chemical Penetrant: A Review

The stratum corneum continues to pose the biggest obstacle to transdermal drug delivery. Chemical penetrant, the first generation of transdermal drug delivery system, offers a lot of potential. In order to fully examine the permeation mechanism of 1,8-cineole, a natural monoterpene, this review summarizes the effects of permeation-enhancing medications on drugs that are lipophilic and hydrophilic as well as the toxicity of this substance on the skin and other tissues. For lower lipophilic drugs, 1,8-cineole appears to have a stronger osmotic-enhancing impact. An efficient and secure tactic would be to combine enhancers and dose forms. 1,8-cineole is anticipated to be further developed in the transdermal drug delivery system and even become a candidate drug for brain transport due to its permeability and low toxicity.

Orodispersible Films: Current Innovations and Emerging Trends

Orodispersible films (ODFs) are thin, mechanically strong, and flexible polymeric films that are designed to dissolve or disintegrate rapidly in the oral cavity for local and/or systemic drug delivery. This review examines various aspects of ODFs and their potential as a drug delivery system. Recent advancements, including the detailed exploration of formulation components, such as polymers and plasticizers, are briefed. The review highlights the versatility of preparation methods, particularly the solvent-casting production process, and novel 3D printing techniques that bring inherent flexibility. Three-dimensional printing technology not only diversifies active compounds but also enables a multilayer approach, effectively segregating incompatible drugs. The integration of nanoparticles into ODF formulations marks a significant breakthrough, thus enhancing the efficiency of oral drug delivery and broadening the scope of the drugs amenable to this route. This review also sheds light on the diverse in vitro evaluation methods utilized to characterize ODFs, ongoing clinical trials, approved marketed products, and recent patents, providing a comprehensive outlook of the evolving landscape of orodispersible drug delivery. Current patient-centric approaches involve developing ODFs with patient-friendly attributes, such as improved taste masking, ease of administration, and enhanced patient compliance, along with the personalization of ODF formulations to meet individual patient needs. Investigating novel functional excipients with the potential to enhance the permeation of high-molecular-weight polar drugs, fragile proteins, and oligonucleotides is crucial for rapid progress in the advancing domain of orodispersible drug delivery.

Recent update on alginate based promising transdermal drug delivery systems

Alongside oral delivery of therapeutics, transdermal delivery systems have gained increased patient acceptability over past few decades. With increasing popularity, novel techniques were employed for transdermal drug targeting which involves microneedle patches, transdermal films and hydrogel based formulations. Hydrogel forming ability along with other rheological behaviour makes natural polysaccharides an attractive option for transdermal use. Being a marine originated anionic polysaccharide, alginates are widely used in pharmaceutical, cosmetics and food industries. Alginate possesses excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility and mucoadhesive properties. Owing to many favourable properties required for transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS), the application of alginates are increasing in recent times. This review summarizes the source and properties of alginate along with several transdermal delivery techniques including the application of alginate for respective transdermal systems.

Development and Evaluation of Solid Dispersion-Based Sublingual Films of Nisoldipine

Nisoldipine (NIS) is a calcium channel blocker that exhibits poor bioavailability (~5%) due to low aqueous solubility and presystemic metabolism in the gut wall. In this context, the present work aimed to develop NIS solid dispersion (NISSD)-based sublingual films using solvent casting technique to improve the dissolution. Phase solubility studies indicated that Soluplus® was the most effective carrier for improving the aqueous solubility of NIS. NISSDs were initially developed using the solvent evaporation method. Fourier transform infrared spectrometric studies were found to display the characteristic vibrational bands related to C=O stretching and N-H deformation in NISSDs, proving the chemical integrity of the drug in NISSDs. Subsequently, bioadhesive sublingual films of NISSDs were formulated using solvent casting method, using hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) E5, E15, and hydroxy ethyl cellulose (HEC EF) as hydrophilic polymers and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400) as plasticizer. The incorporation of NISSDs was found to produce clear films that displayed uniform content. The sublingual film of NISSDs composed of HPMC E5 (2% w/v), was found to display the least thickness (0.29 ± 0.02 mm), the highest folding endurance (168.66 ± 4.50 times), and good bioadhesion strength (12.73 ± 0.503 g/cm2). This film was found to rapidly disintegrate (28.66 ± 3.05 sec) and display near-complete drug release (94.24 ± 1.22) in 30 min. Incorporating NISSDs into rapidly bioadhesive sublingual films considerably improves drug dissolution. Overall, these research outcomes underscored the potential of rapidly dissolving bioadhesive sublingual films to evade gut metabolism and resolve the bioavailability issues associated with oral administration of NIS.

Oral disintegration films: applications and production methods

The use of orally disintegrating films (ODF) as a vehicle for the release of active compounds has drawn attention due to the advantages such as ease of swallowing, precise dosage, low thickness, flexibility, greater comfort and acceptability by the patient in relation to oral tablets, for do not require water for administration, it is ideal for people with difficulty in swallowing. In this review, recent advances in ODFs, their applications and production methods will be presented. The production of ODFs uses polymers, plasticizers and active compounds. Among the compounds added to the film that can affect its properties, the polymer used has a strong influence on the disintegration time and on the controlled release of active principles. Polymers used for the production of oral films must be non-toxic, have good wettability and spreadability, and may be of synthetic or natural origin. Regarding the methods used in the production of ODFs, those currently used are solvent evaporation and hot extrusion. However, one of the great challenges for the production of oral films is the scale up, from laboratory to industrial scale, as factors such as heating, mixing speed and temperatures can lead to changes in film quality. Recently, ODFs have been developed as carriers of natural compounds such as vitamins, phenolic compounds, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Thus, it was found that orally disintegrating films are an alternative for the release of active compounds, different from those already existing, which justifies the growing interest in this type of film.

Exploring the recent developments of alginate silk fibroin material for hydrogel wound dressing: A review

Hydrogels, a type of polymeric material capable of retaining water within a three-dimensional network, have demonstrated their potential in wound healing, surpassing traditional wound dressings. These hydrogels possess remarkable mechanical, chemical, and biological properties, making them suitable scaffolds for tissue regeneration. This article aims to emphasize the advantages of alginate, silk fibroin, and hydrogel-based wound dressings, specifically highlighting their crucial functions that accelerate the healing process of skin wounds. Noteworthy functions include self-healing ability, water solubility, anti-inflammatory properties, adhesion, antimicrobial properties, drug delivery, conductivity, and responsiveness to stimuli. Moreover, recent advancements in hydrogel technology have resulted in the development of wound dressings with enhanced features for monitoring wound progression, further augmenting their effectiveness. This review emphasizes the utilization of hydrogel membranes for treating excisional and incisional wounds, while exploring recent breakthroughs in hydrogel wound dressings, including nanoparticle composite hydrogels, stem cell hydrogel composites, and curcumin-hydrogel composites. Additionally, the review focuses on diverse synthesis procedures, designs, and potential applications of hydrogels in wound healing dressings.

Karaya/Gellan-Gum-Based Bilayer Films Containing 3,3'-Diindolylmethane-Loaded Nanocapsules: A Promising Alternative to Melanoma Topical Treatment

This study aimed to incorporate nanocapsules containing 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM) with antitumor activity into a bilayer film of karaya and gellan gums for use in topical melanoma therapy. Nanocarriers and films were prepared by interfacial deposition of the preformed polymer and solvent casting methods, respectively. Incorporating DIM into nanocapsules increased its antitumor potential against human melanoma cells (A-375) (IC50 > 24.00 µg/mL free DIM × 2.89 µg/mL nanocapsules). The films were transparent, hydrophilic (θ < 90°), had homogeneous thickness and weight, and had a DIM content of 106 µg/cm2. Radical ABTS+ scavenger assay showed that the DIM films presented promising antioxidant action. Remarkably, the films showed selective bioadhesive potential on the karaya gum side. Considering the mechanical analyses, the nanotechnology-based films presented appropriate behavior for cutaneous application and controlled DIM release profile, which could increase the residence time on the application site. Furthermore, the nanofilms were found to increase the permeation of DIM into the epidermis, where melanoma develops. Lastly, the films were non-hemolytic (hemolysis test) and non-irritant (HET-CAM assay). In summary, the combination of karaya and gellan gum in bilayer films that contain nanoencapsulated DIM has demonstrated potential in the topical treatment of melanoma and could serve as a viable option for administering DIM for cutaneous melanoma therapy.

Polysaccharide-Based Coatings as Drug Delivery Systems

Therapeutic polysaccharide-based coatings have recently emerged as versatile strategies to transform a conventional medical implant into a drug delivery system. However, the translation of these polysaccharide-based coatings into the clinic as drug delivery systems still requires a deeper understanding of their drug degradation/release profiles. This claim is supported by little or no data. In this review paper, a comprehensive description of the benefits and challenges generated by the polysaccharide-based coatings is provided. Moreover, the latest advances made towards the application of the most important representative coatings based on polysaccharide types for drug delivery are debated. Furthermore, suggestions/recommendations for future research to speed up the transition of polysaccharide-based drug delivery systems from the laboratory testing to clinical applications are given.

Comparison of Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose and Alginate Gel Films with Meloxicam as Fast Orodispersible Drug Delivery

The aim of the study was the preparation and comparison of two types of orodispersible gel films (ODF) by the solvent casting method. Natural polymers: sodium alginate (ALG) or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) were used as the gel film formers, and Kollidon or microcrystalline cellulose was used as the disintegrant. Meloxicam (MLX), the drug used to treat rheumatic diseases for children and adults, was proposed as the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). The influence of the polymer and disintegrant on the properties of ODF was investigated. The evaluation of prepared gel films was based on appearance description, mass uniformity measurement, disintegration time, API content, film wettability, and water content. Also, the dissolution test was prepared in a basket apparatus using artificial salvia (pH = 6.8) as the medium. The obtained API release profiles were analyzed for the similarity factors (f2) with the DDSolver software. The results showed that independently of the polymer or disintegrant, using the solvent casting method, gel films have a similar appearance and active substance content close to the theoretical value and water content of less than 10%. Only the type of polymer influences the release profiles of MLX. However, the disintegration time was longer than 30 s, which makes the films non-fast-dissolving drug delivery systems. This means that for the ODF system, further evaluation is required, and some changes in the composition of the film have to be done.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of Composite Oral Fast Disintegrating Film: An Innovative Strategy for the Codelivery of Ranitidine HCl and Flurbiprofen

Here, we evaluate the feasibility of co-loading plain ranitidine hydrochloride (RHCl) and microencapsulated flurbiprofen (FBP) in a Lycoat^® RS780-based oral fast disintegrating film (ODF). These films were developed by the solvent casting method to minimize the adverse effects of FBP and reduce the dosage form burden on patients. Optimized FBP microparticles (M3) with an average size of 21.2 ± 9.2 µm were loaded alone (F1) and in combination with plain RHCl (F2) in the composite ODF. All films were evaluated physicomechanically and physicochemically. These films were resilient, flexible, and disintegrated within thirty seconds. SEM images showed intact FBP microparticles in both formulations and, moreover, did not observe an interaction between the drug and film components. Microencapsulated FBP was released in a controlled manner over 48 h from the proposed formulations, while RHCl was released within 5 min from F2. After in vitro evaluation, formulations were also tested for in vivo anti-inflammatory activity, cytokine (TNF-α and IL-6) levels, and gastroprotective effects in rats. The anti-inflammatory activity and gastroprotective effect of F2 were markedly higher than pure FBP and other synthesized formulations (M3 and F1). The average score of gastric lesions was in the order of pure FBP (15.5 ± 1.32) > M3 (8 ± 2) > F1 (1 ± 0.5) > F2 (0.5 ± 0) > control (0). Additionally, F2 showed a sustained anti-inflammatory effect up to 10 h in the rat paw edema model. Furthermore, F2 also markedly reduced TNF-α and IL-6 levels. Conclusively, the Lycoat^® RS780-based composite film could be a promising carrier for the co-loading of microencapsulated FBP with RHCl. In the future, an optimized formulation (F2) could be capable of countering the issues related to multiple drug administration in geriatric patients and evading the gastric irritation associated with FBP.

Efficacy of bioadhesives in the management of oral mucositis in patients undergoing radio-chemotherapy for treatment of head and neck cancer-a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Management of head and neck cancers requires a multidisciplinary approach where surgery followed by radio and chemotherapy is the mainstay of treatment. The above-mentioned treatment can cause mucositis, a severely debilitating side effect. This can have a significant impact on quality of life. A recent advancing mode of drug delivery is the bioadhesive system. This interacts with mucosa by adhering to it and thereby improving the efficacy of the therapeutic agent delivered.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this systematic review is to evaluate the effectiveness of bioadhesives in reducing oral mucositis and relieving pain associated with mucositis in head and neck cancer patients receiving radio-chemotherapy.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Studies assessing the effectiveness of bioadhesives for the treatment of radiation-induced oral mucositis were retrieved from specialized databases (PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, ProQuest, Google Scholar, LILACS, OpenGrey) as well as institutional repositories. Data on incidence, pain reduction, resolution, and improvement of oral mucositis using bioadhesive were compiled. A Cochrane tool was used for randomized controlled trials and a JBI tool for non-randomized controlled trials and observational studies to assess the quality of included studies. Based on the eligible study data, a meta-analysis was conducted with STATA version 16, 2019 software, and 95% confidence intervals and p values greater than 0.05.

RESULTS

A total of 15 studies were included which assessed the effectiveness of bioadhesives in managing mucositis and its associated pain. Studies included in the review described either reduction, resolution, or incidence of oral mucositis respectively. A total of three meta-analyses were conducted to assess the incidence of oral mucositis and the pain associated with it, as well as the reduction in incidence. Bioadhesives showed statistically significant differences in the incidence of severe mucositis (p = 0.04). A meta-analysis comparing bioadhesives efficacy in reducing mucositis and pain associated with it found no statistically significant differences (p = 0.36).

CONCLUSION

Bioadhesives are emerging as a novel drug delivery method for treating radio-chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis because of their rapid absorption and easy application. Regardless of its benefits, clinical trials comparing it with conventional treatment methods are necessary to assess its efficacy in treating oral mucositis.

Films for Wound Healing Fabricated Using a Solvent Casting Technique

Wound healing is a complex process that involves restoring the structure of damaged tissues through four phases: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. Wound dressings are the most common treatment used to cover wounds, reduce infection risk and the loss of physiological fluids, and enhance wound healing. Despite there being several types of wound dressings based on different materials and fabricated through various techniques, polymeric films have been widely employed due to their biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. Furthermore, they are non-invasive, easy to apply, allow gas exchange, and can be transparent. Among different methods for designing polymeric films, solvent casting represents a reliable, preferable, and highly used technique due to its easygoing and relatively low-cost procedure compared to sophisticated methods such as spin coating, microfluidic spinning, or 3D printing. Therefore, this review focuses on the polymeric dressings obtained using this technique, emphasizing the critical manufacturing factors related to pharmaceuticals, specifically discussing the formulation variables necessary to create wound dressings that demonstrate effective performance.

Bioequivalence Studies of Sildenafil Citrate Orodispersible Film Administered with and without Water vs ViagraⓇ Film-Coated Tablets in Healthy Male Volunteers

Background

Orodispersible film (ODF) formulation offers ease of use, convenience of administration, and other advantages, especially for patients who have difficulty in swallowing or are on liquid restriction compared with conventional oral formulations for the treatment of erectile dysfunction.

Objectives

These studies compared the bioequivalence of 50 mg sildenafil citrate ODF formulation (test drug) with the marketed 50 mg sildenafil citrate film-coated tablet (FCT) (Viagra^Ⓡ; Pfizer, New York, NY) (reference drug), with and without water in 2 randomized cross-over studies.

Methods

Two randomized cross-over studies were conducted. The first study explored the bioequivalence of test drug administered with and without water compared with the reference drug with water. The second study investigated the bioequivalence of test drug, without water, compared with the reference drug with water. Forty-two and 80 healthy male volunteers were recruited in the first and second study, respectively. All volunteers fasted for 10 hours pre-dose. A 1-day washout period between doses was observed. Blood samples were collected at both before (up to 120 minutes before dosing) and after dosing (at different intervals up to 14 hours) stages. Statistical analyses on pharmacokinetic parameters were performed. Safety and tolerability for both the formulations were evaluated.

Results

In the first study, bioequivalence was demonstrated for sildenafil citrate ODF administered with water when compared with the Viagra^Ⓡ FCT. The ratios of adjusted geometric means (90% confidence interval (CI)) were maximum plasma concentration: 1.02 (94.91-108.78) and area under the plasma concentration-time curve: 1.09 (104.49-113.21) for sildenafil citrate ODF administered with water vs Viagra^Ⓡ FCT. These ratios were within the bioequivalence acceptance range of 80% to 125%, indicating that the bioequivalence criteria were met. The pharmacokinetic parameters for the second study also showed bioequivalence for sildenafil citrate ODF (without water) compared with Viagra^Ⓡ FCT. The ratios of adjusted geometric means (90% CI) were maximum plasma concentration: 1.02 (95.47-109.36) and area under the plasma concentration-time curve: 1.06 (103.42-108.40) for sildenafil citrate ODF administered without water vs Viagra^Ⓡ FCT. Adverse events in both the studies occurred at similar rates for the 2 formulations and were mild in intensity.

Conclusions

These results suggest that the new ODF formulation can be used interchangeably with the marketed FCT formulation. Sildenafil citrate ODF administered with and without water met bioequivalence criteria compared with Viagra^Ⓡ FCT administered with water under fasted conditions in healthy adult male volunteers. The new ODF formulation can be used as a suitable alternative to the conventional oral solid dosage form.

Polymeric Based Hydrogel Membranes for Biomedical Applications

The development of biomedical applications is a transdisciplinary field that in recent years has involved researchers from chemistry, pharmacy, medicine, biology, biophysics, and biomechanical engineering. The fabrication of biomedical devices requires the use of biocompatible materials that do not damage living tissues and have some biomechanical characteristics. The use of polymeric membranes, as materials meeting the above-mentioned requirements, has become increasingly popular in recent years, with outstanding results in tissue engineering, for regeneration and replenishment of tissues constituting internal organs, in wound healing dressings, and in the realization of systems for diagnosis and therapy, through the controlled release of active substances. The biomedical application of hydrogel membranes has had little uptake in the past due to the toxicity of cross-linking agents and to the existing limitations regarding gelation under physiological conditions, but now it is proving to be a very promising field This review presents the important technological innovations that the use of membrane hydrogels has promoted, enabling the resolution of recurrent clinical problems, such as post-transplant rejection crises, haemorrhagic crises due to the adhesion of proteins, bacteria, and platelets on biomedical devices in contact with blood, and poor compliance of patients undergoing long-term drug therapies.

Disordering of Starch Films as a Factor Influencing the Release Rate of Biologically Active Substances

The release of a spin probe (nitroxide radical) from polymer films was studied by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). The films were fabricated from starch having different crystal structures (A-, B-, and C-types) and disordering degrees. Film morphology (analysis of the scanning electron microscopy (SEM)) depended on the presence of dopant (nitroxide radical) to a larger extent rather than on crystal structure ordering or polymorphic modification. The presence of nitroxide radical led to additional crystal structure disordering and reduced the crystallinity index from the X-ray diffraction (XRD) data. Polymeric films made of amorphized starch powder were able to undergo recrystallization (crystal structure rearrangement), which manifested itself as an increase in crystallinity index and phase transition of the A- and C-type crystal structures to the B-type one. It was demonstrated that nitroxide radical does not form an individual phase during film preparation. According to the EPR data, local permittivity of starch-based films varied from 52.5 to 60.1 F/m, while bulk permittivity did not exceed 17 F/m, which demonstrates that local concentration of water is increased in the regions near the nitroxide radical. The mobility of the spin probe corresponds to small stochastic librations and is indicative of the strongly a mobilized state. The application of kinetic models made it possible to find out that substance release from biodegradable films consists of two stages: matrix swelling and spin probe diffusion through the matrix. Investigation of the release kinetics for nitroxide radical demonstrated that the course of this process depends on the type of crystal structure of native starch.

Miconazole Nitrate Microparticles in Lidocaine Loaded Films as a Treatment for Oropharyngeal Candidiasis

Oral candidiasis is an opportunistic infection that affects mainly individuals with weakened immune system. Devices used in the oral area to treat this condition include buccal films, which present advantages over both oral tablets and gels. Since candidiasis causes pain, burning, and itching, the purpose of this work was to develop buccal films loaded with both lidocaine (anesthetic) and miconazole nitrate (MN, antifungal) to treat this pathology topically. MN was loaded in microparticles based on different natural polymers, and then, these microparticles were loaded in hydroxypropyl methylcellulose-gelatin-based films containing lidocaine. All developed films showed adequate adhesiveness and thickness. DSC and XRD tests suggested that the drugs were in an amorphous state in the therapeutic systems. Microparticles based on chitosan-alginate showed the highest MN encapsulation. Among the films, those containing the mentioned microparticles presented the highest tensile strength and the lowest elongation at break, possibly due to the strong interactions between both polymers. These films allowed a fast release of lidocaine and a controlled release of MN. Due to the latter, these systems showed antifungal activity for 24 h. Therefore, the treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis with these films could reduce the number of daily applications with respect to conventional treatments.

Controlled drug release contenders comprising starch/poly(allylamine hydrochloride) biodegradable composite films

The blending of natural polysaccharides with synthetic polymers has attracted much attention in drug delivery models owing to their remarkable biodegradable and biocompatible characteristics. This study focuses on the facile preparation of a sequence of composite films having Starch/Poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (ST/PAH) in different compositions to propose a novel drug delivery system (DDS). ST/PAH blend films were developed and characterized. FT-IR evaluation confirmed the involvement of intermolecular H-bonding between the ST and PAH counterparts in blended films. The water contact angle (WCA) ranged from 71° to 100° indicating that all the films were hydrophobic. TPH-1 (90 % ST and 10 % PAH) was evaluated for in vitro controlled drug release (CDR) at 37 ± 0.5 °C in a time-dependent fashion. CDR was recorded in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and simulated gastric fluid (SGF). In the case of SGF (pH 1.2), the percentile drug release (DR) for TPH-1 was approximately 91 % in 110 min, while the maximum DR was 95 % in 80 min in PBS (pH 7.4) solution. Our results demonstrate that the fabricated biocompatible blend films can be a promising candidate for a sustained-release DDS for oral drug administration, tissue engineering, wound dressings, and other biomedical applications.

Technological Aspects and Evaluation Methods for Polymer Matrices as Dental Drug Carriers

The development of polymer matrices as dental drug carriers takes into account the following technological aspects of the developed formulations: the composition and the technology used to manufacture them, which affect the properties of the carriers, as well as the testing methods for assessing their behavior at application sites. The first part of this paper characterizes the methods for fabricating dental drug carriers, i.e., the solvent-casting method (SCM), lyophilization method (LM), electrospinning (ES) and 3D printing (3DP), describing the selection of technological parameters and pointing out both the advantages of using the mentioned methods and their limitations. The second part of this paper describes testing methods to study the formulation properties, including their physical and chemical, pharmaceutical, biological and in vivo evaluation. Comprehensive in vitro evaluation of carrier properties permits optimization of formulation parameters to achieve prolonged retention time in the dynamic oral environment and is essential for explaining carrier behavior during clinical evaluation, consequently enabling the selection of the optimal formulation for oral application.

Preparation and Evaluation of Caffeine Orodispersible Films: The Influence of Hydrotropic Substances and Film-Forming Agent Concentration on Film Properties

This study aimed to develop caffeine (CAF) orodispersible films (ODFs) and verify the effects of different percentages of film-forming agent and hydrotropic substances (citric acid-CA or sodium benzoate-SB) on various film properties. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose E 5 (HPMC E 5) orodispersible films were prepared using the solvent casting method. Four CAF-ODF formulations were prepared and coded as CAF1 (8% HPMC E 5, CAF), CAF2 (8% HPMC E 5 and CAF:CA-1:1), CAF3 (9% HPMC E 5 and CAF:CA-1:1), and CAF4 (9% HPMC E 5 and CAF:SB-1:1). The CAF-ODFs were evaluated in terms of disintegration time, folding endurance, thickness, uniformity of mass, CAF content, thickness-normalized tensile strength, adhesiveness, dissolution, and pH. Thin, opaque, and slightly white CAF-ODFs were obtained. All the formulations developed exhibited disintegration times less than 3 min. The dissolution test revealed that CAF1, CAF2, and CAF3 exhibited concentrations of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) released at 30 min that were close to 100%, whilst CAF4 showed a faster dissolution behaviour (100% of the CAF was released at 5 min). Thin polymeric films containing 10 mg of CAF/surface area (3.14 cm²) were prepared.

Clindamycin phosphate and bone morphogenetic protein-7 loaded combined nanoparticle-graft and nanoparticle-film formulations for alveolar bone regeneration - An in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Commonly utilized techniques for healing alveolar bone destruction such as the use of growth factors, suffering from short half-life, application difficulties, and the ability to achieve bioactivity only in the presence of high doses of growth factor. The sustained release of growth factors through a scaffold-based delivery system offers a promising and innovative tool in dentistry. Furthermore, it is suggested to guide the host response by using antimicrobials together with growth factors to prevent recovery and achieve ideal regeneration. Herein, the aim was to prepare and an in vitro - in vivo evaluation of bone morphogenetic protein 7 (BMP-7) and clindamycin phosphate (CDP) loaded polymeric nanoparticles, and their loading into the alginate-chitosan polyelectrolyte complex film or alloplastic graft to accelerate hard tissue regeneration. PLGA nanoparticles containing CDP and BMP-7, separately or together, were prepared using the double emulsion solvent evaporation technique. Through in vitro assays, it was revealed that spherical particles were homogeneously distributed in the combination formulations, and sustained release could be achieved for >12 weeks with all formulations. Also, results from the micro-CT and histopathological analyses indicated that CDP and BMP-7 loaded nanoparticle-film formulations were more effective in treatment than the nanoparticle loaded grafts.

Buccal delivery of small molecules and biologics: Of mucoadhesive polymers, films, and nanoparticles - An update

Buccal delivery of small and large molecules is an attractive route of administration that has been studied extensively over the past few decades. This route bypasses first-pass metabolism and can be used to deliver therapeutics directly to systemic circulation. Moreover, buccal films are efficient dosage forms for drug delivery due to their simplicity, portability, and patient comfort. Films have traditionally been formulated using conventional techniques, including hot-melt extrusion and solvent casting. However, newer methods are now being exploited to improve the delivery of small molecules and biologics. This review discusses recent advances in buccal film manufacturing, using the latest technologies, such as 2D and 3D printing, electrospraying, and electrospinning. This review also focuses on the excipients used in the preparation of these films, with emphasis on mucoadhesive polymers and plasticizers. Along with advances in manufacturing technology, newer analytical tools have also been used for the assessment of permeation of the active agents across the buccal mucosa, the most critical biological barrier and limiting factor of this route. Additionally, preclinical and clinical trial challenges are discussed, and some small molecule products already on the market are explored.

Newfangled Topical Film-Forming Solution for Facilitated Antifungal Therapy: Design, Development, Characterization, and In Vitro Evaluation

Luliconazole is a broad-spectrum topical antifungal agent that acts by altering the synthesis of fungi cell membranes. Literature suggests that the recurrence of fungal infection can be avoided by altering the pH of the site of infection. Studies have also suggested that fungi thrive by altering skin pH to be slightly acidic, i.e., pH 3-5. The current study is aimed to design, develop, characterize, and evaluate an alkaline pH-based antifungal spray solution for antifungal effects. Luliconazole was used as an antifungal agent and an alkaline spray was formulated for topical application by using Eudragit RS 100, propylene glycol (PG), water, sodium bicarbonate, and ethanol via solubilization method. Herein, sodium bicarbonate was used as an alkalizing agent. Based on DSC, FTIR, PXRD, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and rheological analysis outcomes, the drug (luliconazole) and polymer were found to be compatible. F-14 formulation containing 22% Eudragit RS 100 (ERS), 1.5% PG, and 0.25% sodium bicarbonate was optimized by adopting the quality by design approach by using design of experiment software. The viscosity, pH, drying time, volume of solution post spraying, and spray angle were, 14.99 ± 0.21 cp, 8 pH, 60 s, 0.25 mL ± 0.05 mL, and 80 ± 2, respectively. In vitro drug diffusion studies and in vitro antifungal trials against Candida albicans revealed 98.0 ± 0.2% drug diffusion with a zone of inhibition of 9 ± 0.12 mm. The findings of the optimized luliconazole topical film-forming solution were satisfactory, it was compatible with human skin, and depicted sustained drug release that suggests promising applicability in facilitated topical antifungal treatments.

Chitosan-based drug delivery systems for skin atopic dermatitis: recent advancements and patent trends

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a complex, relapsing inflammatory skin disease with a considerable social and economic burden globally. AD is primarily characterized by its chronic pattern and it can have important modifications in the quality of life of the patients and caretakers. One of the fastest-growing topics in translational medicine today is the exploration of new or repurposed functional biomaterials into drug delivery therapeutic applications. This area has gained a considerable amount of research which produced many innovative drug delivery systems for inflammatory skin diseases like AD. Chitosan, a polysaccharide, has attracted attention as a functional biopolymer for diverse applications, especially in pharmaceutics and medicine, and has been considered a promising candidate for AD treatment due to its antimicrobial, antioxidative, and inflammatory response modulation properties. The current pharmacological treatment for AD involves prescribing topical corticosteroid and calcineurin inhibitors. However, the adverse reactions associated with the long-term usage of these drugs such as itching, burning, or stinging sensation are also well documented. Innovative formulation strategies, including the use of micro- and nanoparticulate systems, biopolymer hydrogel composites, nanofibers, and textile fabrication are being extensively researched with an aim to produce a safe and effective delivery system for AD treatment with minimal side effects. This review outlines the recent development of various chitosan-based drug delivery systems for the treatment of AD published in the past 10 years (2012-2022). These chitosan-based delivery systems include hydrogels, films, micro-, and nanoparticulate systems as well as chitosan textile. The global patent trends on chitosan-based formulations for the AD are also discussed.

Selected Biopolymers' Processing and Their Applications: A Review

Petroleum-based polymers are used in a multitude of products in the commercial world, but their high degree of contamination and non-biodegradability make them unattractive. The development and use of polymers derived from nature offer a solution to achieve an environmentally friendly and green alternative and reduce waste derived from plastics. This review focuses on showing an overview of the most widespread production methods for the main biopolymers. The parameters affecting the development of the technique, the most suitable biopolymers, and the main applications are included. The most studied biopolymers are those derived from polysaccharides and proteins. These biopolymers are subjected to production methods that improve their properties and modify their chemical structure. Process factors such as temperature, humidity, solvents used, or processing time must be considered. Among the most studied production techniques are solvent casting, coating, electrospinning, 3D printing, compression molding, and graft copolymerization. After undergoing these production techniques, biopolymers are applied in many fields such as biomedicine, pharmaceuticals, food packaging, scaffold engineering, and others.

Optical-Quality Thin Films with Tunable Thickness from Stable Colloidal Suspensions of Lanthanide Oxysulfide Nanoplates

In modern laser technologies, there is a need for coatings that would be compatible with flexible substrates while retaining the advantages of inorganic compounds in terms of robustness. As a first step in this direction, we developed here thin films of lanthanide oxysulfide, of optical quality, prepared by low-temperature dip coating. As a model compound in the family of oxysulfides, (Gd,Ce)₂O₂S anisotropic nanoplates were used. The films were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and in situ UV and IR spectroscopic ellipsometry, showing that the band gap of the materials was preserved through the deposition process. The thickness of the films was tuned in a broad range, from a few nanometers to 150 nm, using different concentrations of the colloidal suspensions as well as single-layer and multilayer deposition. Lastly, thermal treatment of the thin films was optimized to remove the stabilizing organic ligands of the nanoparticles while preserving their integrity, as confirmed by SEM and XRD.

Application of Box-Behnken Design in the Preparation, Optimization, and In-Vivo Pharmacokinetic Evaluation of Oral Tadalafil-Loaded Niosomal Film

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) affects about 90% of men whose ages are over 65. Tadalafil, a selective PDE-5 inhibitor, was approved by FDA for BPH, however, its poor aqueous solubility and bioavailability are considered major drawbacks. This work intended to develop and evaluate oral fast dissolving film containing tadalafil-loaded niosomes for those who cannot receive the oral dosage form. Niosomes were statistically optimized by Box-Behnken experimental design and loaded into a polymeric oral film. Niosomes were assessed for their vesicular size, uniformity, and zeta potential. The thickness, content uniformity, folding endurance, tensile strength, disintegration time, and surface morphology were evaluated for the prepared polymeric film. The optimized niosomes revealed high entrapment efficiency (99.78 ± 2.132%) and the film was smooth with good flexibility and convenient thickness (110 ± 10 µm). A fast release of tadalafil was achieved within 5 min significantly faster than the niosomes-free drug film. The in-vivo bioavailability in rats established that the optimized niosomal film enhanced tadalafil systemic absorption, with higher peak concentration (C_max = 0.63 ± 0.03 µg/mL), shorter T_max value (0.66-fold), and relative bioavailability of 118.4% compared to the marketed tablet. These results propose that the oral film of tadalafil-loaded niosomes is a suitable therapeutic application that can be passed with ease to geriatric patients who suffer from BPH.

Cell delivery devices for cancer immunotherapy

Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) that leverages allogeneic or autologous immune cells holds vast promise in targeted cancer therapy. Despite the tremendous success of ACT in treating hematopoietic malignancies, its efficacy is limited in eradicating solid tumors via intravenous infusion of immune cells. With the extending technology of cancer immunotherapy, novel delivery strategies have been explored to improve the therapeutic potency of adoptively transferred cells for solid tumor treatment by innovating the administration route, maintaining the cell viability, and normalizing the tumor microenvironment. In this review, a variety of devices for cell delivery are summarized. Perspectives and challenges of cell delivery devices for cancer immunotherapy are also discussed.

Polymeric Biomaterials for Topical Drug Delivery in the Oral Cavity: Advances on Devices and Manufacturing Technologies

There are several routes of drug administration, and each one has advantages and limitations. In the case of the topical application in the oral cavity, comprising the buccal, sublingual, palatal, and gingival regions, the advantage is that it is painless, non-invasive, allows easy application of the formulation, and it is capable of avoiding the need of drug swallowing by the patient, a matter of relevance for children and the elderly. Another advantage is the high permeability of the oral mucosa, which may deliver very high amounts of medication rapidly to the bloodstream without significant damage to the stomach. This route also allows the local treatment of lesions that affect the oral cavity, as an alternative to systemic approaches involving injection-based methods and oral medications that require drug swallowing. Thus, this drug delivery route has been arousing great interest in the pharmaceutical industry. This review aims to condense information on the types of biomaterials and polymers used for this functionality, as well as on production methods and market perspectives of this topical drug delivery route.

Anti-inflammatory effect of simvastatin by impeding TNF-α and interleukin-1ß pathways: antiangiogenic activity of simvastatin and simvastatin-loaded silver nanoparticles

PURPOSE

The present study was carried out to evaluate anti-inflammatory and antiangiogenic attributes of simvastatin and its nanofilms containing silver nanoparticles.

METHODS

Silver nanoparticles and simvastatin-loaded nanocomposite (SNSN) films were formulated by using polymeric solution (pectin + sericin) through casting solution method. Different in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory assays were performed. In addition, chick chorioallantoic membrane assay (CAM) was also employed for angiogenesis activity.

RESULTS

FTIR spectra of the film depicted the presence of intact simvastatin. Differential scanning calorimetry exhibited no endothermic expression in F9 film thermogram. The simvastatin release from all films exhibited a burst effect. Cotton-pellet induced granuloma model study showed that high dose of simvastatin and indomethacin produced comparable (p < 0.05) anti-inflammatory effect. Noteworthy, RT-PCR showed dose-dependent, anti-oedematous effect of simvastatin through downregulation of serum TNF-α and interleukin-1ß levels. While results of CAM assay exhibited remarkable anti-angiogenic potential of SNSN films showing dissolved blood vessels network macroscopically.

CONCLUSION

To reiterate, simvastatin and its SNSN films can add significant contribution to the field of biomedicines due to their promising anti-inflammatory and antiangiogenic properties, however, clinical studies are required to validate their commercial use.

Buccal films: A review of therapeutic opportunities, formulations & relevant evaluation approaches

The potential of the mucoadhesive film technology is hard to ignore, owing to perceived superior patient acceptability versus buccal tablets, and significant therapeutic opportunities compared to conventional oral drug delivery systems, especially for those who suffer from dysphagia. In spite of this, current translation from published literature into the commercial marketplace is virtually non-existent, with no authorised mucoadhesive buccal films available in the UK and very few available in the USA. This review seeks to provide an overview of the mucoadhesive buccal film technology and identify key areas upon which to focus scientific efforts to facilitate the wider adoption of this patient-centric dosage form. Several indications and opportunities for development were identified, while discussing the patient-related factors influencing the use of these dosage forms. In addition, an overview of the technologies behind the manufacturing of these films was provided, highlighting manufacturing methods like solvent casting, hot melt extrusion, inkjet printing and three-dimensional printing. Over thirty mucoadhesive polymers were identified as being used in film formulations, with details surrounding their mucoadhesive capabilities as well as their inclusion alongside other key formulation constituents provided. Lastly, the importance of physiologically relevant in vitro evaluation methodologies was emphasised, which seek to improve in vivo correlations, potentially leading to better translation of mucoadhesive buccal films from the literature into the commercial marketplace.