Differentiation of constrictive pericarditis from restrictive cardiomyopathy using mitral annular velocity by tissue Doppler echocardiography

Echocardiographic Criteria to Differentiate Constrictive Pericarditis From Restrictive Cardiomyopathy: A Meta-analysis

Background

To assess the diagnostic accuracy of the Mayo Clinic echocardiographic criteria for differentiating between constrictive pericarditis and restrictive cardiomyopathy.

Methods

We searched electronic databases for the date range from their inception to July 1, 2022. The index tests were the Mayo Clinic echocardiographic criteria. We performed a bivariate random-effects model to estimate the pooled sensitivity and specificity, each with 95% confidence interval (CI). The area under the curve of the summary receiver operator characteristic curves, with 95% CI, was also calculated.

Results

We included 17 case-control studies involving 889 patients. The pooled sensitivity and specificity (95% CI), respectively, were as follows: ventricular septal shift, 82% (60%-94%) and 78% (65%-87%); respiratory variation in mitral inflow ≥ 14.6%, 71% (51%-85%) and 82% (66%-91%); septal e' velocity ≥ 8 cm/s, 83% (80%-87%) and 90% (83%-95%); septal e' velocity/lateral e' velocity ≥ 0.88, 74% (64%-82%) and 81% (70%-88%); and hepatic vein ratio in expiration ≥ 0.79, 73% (65%-81%) and 71% (19%-96%). The area under the curve of the summary receiver operator characteristic curves varied from 0.75 to 0.85, with overlapping CIs across index tests.

Conclusions

Our meta-analysis suggests that all echocardiographic parameters from the Mayo Clinic criteria have good diagnostic accuracy for differentiating between constrictive pericarditis and restrictive cardiomyopathy.

Echocardiographic Differentiation of Pericardial Constriction and Left Ventricular Restriction

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Overlapping hemodynamics in constrictive pericarditis (CP) and restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM) often pose difficulties in establishing accurate diagnosis. Echocardiography is the first-line imaging modality used for this purpose, but no single echocardiographic parameter is sufficiently robust for distinguishing between the two conditions. The newer developments may improve the diagnostic accuracy of echocardiography in this setting.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies have validated multiparametric algorithms, based on conventional echocardiographic parameters, which enable high sensitivity and specificity for distinguishing between CP and RCM. In addition, myocardial deformation analysis using speckle-tracking echocardiography has revealed distinct pattern of abnormalities in the two conditions. CP is characterized by impaired left ventricular apical rotation with relatively preserved longitudinal strain, esp. of ventricular and atrial septum. In contrast, RCM results in global and marked impairment of left ventricular longitudinal strain with initially preserved circumferential mechanics. Combining multiple echocardiographic parameters into step-wise algorithms and incorporation of myocardial deformation analysis help improve the diagnostic accuracy of echocardiography for distinguishing between CP and RCM. The use of machine-learning may allow easy integration of a wide range of echocardiographic and clinical parameters to permit accurate, automated diagnosis, with less dependence on the user expertise.

A case report of pericardial constriction with coexisting severe left main coronary artery disease

BACKGROUND

Constrictive pericarditis (CP) is a rare condition in which the pericardium becomes progressively fibrotic and non-compliant leading to impaired ventricular filling and overt heart failure. While CP shares many clinical and haemodynamic similarities with restrictive cardiomyopathy, differentiation of these diseases is crucial as CP is potentially curative through pericardiectomy. Here, we present a case of proven pericardial constriction with atypical haemodynamics in a patient presenting with heart failure and severe left main coronary artery disease (CAD).

CASE SUMMARY

A 69-year-old female with a history of hypertension and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation presented with persistent heart failure refractory to diuretics. Ischaemic and infiltrative work-up were found to be negative with magnetic resonance imaging demonstrating trace pericardial fluid and thickening of the pericardium. Echocardiogram and right-heart catheterization demonstrated atypical haemodynamics suggestive of but not conclusive for CP, with coronary angiogram demonstrating severe left main CAD. Ultimately, the patient underwent coronary artery bypass grafting along with pericardiectomy and pericardial biopsy demonstrating constrictive physiology.

DISCUSSION

We suspect the inconclusive nature of the echocardiogram and cardiac catheterization was likely secondary to severe CAD impairing left ventricular relaxation and dampening ventricular interdependence. As such, clinicians should consider the possibility of coexistent severe CAD in patients with a clinical suspicion of CP, but inconclusive haemodynamics.

Echocardiographic evaluation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: A review of up-to-date knowledge and practical tips

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most frequent cardiac disease with genetic substrate, affecting about .2%-.5% of the population. The proper diagnosis is important for optimal management and follow-up. Echocardiography plays an essential role in the assessment of patients with HCM including diagnosis, screening, management formulation, prognosis, and follow up. It also helps to differentiate HCM from other diseases. The advancement of software and probe technology added many echo modalities and techniques that helped in refining the diagnostic and assessing the prognosis of patients with HCM. In this review, we briefly summarize how to integrate the different echocardiographic modalities to obtain comprehensive assessment supported by an updated knowledge of the latest guidelines and recently published articles. Many practical tips and tricks are included in this review to improve the diagnostic accuracy of echocardiography and minimize errors during interpretation.

Transthyretin Cardiac Amyloidosis and Novel Therapies to Treat This Not-so-rare Cause of Cardiomyopathy

Transthyretin cardiac amyloidosis (ATTR-CA) is typically a late-onset disease caused by the deposit of transthyretin amyloid fibrils throughout the heart. When this occurs, various cardiac sequelae can develop, including hypotension, conduction abnormalities, and valvular lesions. The cardiomyopathy caused by ATTR-CA (ATTR-CM) has proven difficult to treat. Until recently, symptomatic management was the only therapeutic option, and many therapies used to treat congestive heart failure were ineffective or even detrimental to patients with ATTR-CM. In addition, treatment was limited to heart and liver transplantation. As a result, prognosis was poor. Recently, a few drug therapies have come to light as potential treatment modalities for ATTR-CM, most notably tafamidis, sold under the brand names Vyndaqel and Vyndamax. After the phase III Transthyretin Amyloidosis Cardiomyopathy trial displayed the drug's efficacy, it was given breakthrough therapy designation and was approved by the Food and Drug Administration on May 6, 2019, for the treatment of ATTR-CA. This novel therapy, as well as various other therapies in the pipeline, such as inotersen and patisiran, provide hope where, until recently, there was little. Unfortunately, the exorbitant cost of these new therapies may present a barrier to long-term treatment for some patients. However, by further improving diagnostic algorithms and incorporating these new treatments into our existing therapeutic modalities, patients with ATTR-CA should be able to live far longer than previously expected. Finally, further research combining these novel treatment modalities must be done, as they may prove to be additive or even synergistic in their treatment of ATTR amyloidosis.

Constrictive pericarditis: 21 years' experience and review of literature

To the best of our knowledge there are no publications about Tunisian experience in constrictive pericarditis (CP); the aim of this study was therefore to review our twenty-one years’ experience in terms of clinical and surgical outcomes and risk factors of death after pericardiectomy. An analytic bicentric and retrospective study carried out on 25 patients (20 male) with CP underwent pericardiectomy, collected over a 21-years period. The mean age was 40.46±16.74 years [7.5-72]. The commonest comorbid factor was tabagism (52%). The most common etiology was tuberculosis (n = 11, 44%). Dyspnea was the most common functional symptom (n = 21, 84%). Pericardiectomy was performed in all our patients within 2.9±3.19 months after confirmation of diagnosis. It was subtotal in 96% of cases. The commonest postoperative complications are pleural effusion (20%). Dyspnea was regressed within 1.8 months in 80% of cases and clinical signs of right heart failure within a mean duration of 1.62 months in 53% of cases. Perioperative mortality was 12% (3 deaths), late mortality was 4% (1 patient). Cardiopulmonary bypass, New York Heart Association (NYHA) over class II and right ventricular dysfunction are the prognostic factors of mortality (p = 0.001, 0.046, 0.019). Tuberculosis as etiology of CP had no impact on mortality. CP is a rare disease, with non-specific clinical signs. Pericardiectomy is effective with a significant improvement of the functional status of patients and favorable outcome at short and long term nevertheless hospital mortality is not negligible and depends on many factors.

Improvement in left ventricular mechanics following medical treatment of constrictive pericarditis

OBJECTIVE

Patients with constrictive pericarditis (CP) with active inflammation may show resolution with anti-inflammatory therapy. We aimed to investigate the impact of anti-inflammatory medications on constrictive pathophysiology using echocardiography in patients with CP.

METHODS

We identified 35 patients with CP who were treated with anti-inflammatory medications (colchicine, prednisone, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) after diagnosis of CP (mean age 58±13; 80% male). Clinical resolution of CP (transient CP) was defined as improvement in New York Heart Association class during follow-up. We assessed constrictive pathophysiology using regional myocardial mechanics by the ratio of peak early diastolic tissue velocity (e') at the lateral and septal mitral annulus by tissue Doppler imaging (lateral/septal e') or the ratio of the left ventricular lateral and septal wall longitudinal strain (LS_lateral/LS_septal) by two-dimensional speckle-tracking echocardiography. Longitudinal data were analysed using a mixed effects model.

RESULTS

During a median follow-up of 323 days, 20 patients had transient CP, whereas 15 patients had persistent CP. Transient CP had higher baseline erythrocyte sedimentation rates (ESR) (p=0.003) compared with persistent CP. There were no significant differences in LS_lateral/LS_septal and lateral/septal e'. During follow-up, only transient CP showed improvement in lateral/septal e' (p<0.001) and LS_lateral/LS_septal (p=0.003), and recovery of inflammatory markers was similar between the two groups. In the logistic model, higher baseline ESR and greater improvement in lateral/septal e' and LS_lateral/LS_septal were associated with clinical resolution of CP using anti-inflammatory therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Improvement of constrictive physiology detected by lateral/septal e' and LS_lateral/LS_septal was associated with resolution of clinical symptoms after anti-inflammatory treatment. Serial monitoring of these markers could be used to identify transient CP.

Guidelines for the Use of Transesophageal Echocardiography to Assist with Surgical Decision-Making in the Operating Room: A Surgery-Based Approach: From the American Society of Echocardiography in Collaboration with the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons

Intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography is a standard diagnostic and monitoring tool employed in the management of patients undergoing an entire spectrum of cardiac surgical procedures, ranging from "routine" surgical coronary revascularization to complex valve repair, combined procedures, and organ transplantation. Utilizing a protocol as a starting point for imaging in all procedures and all patients enables standardization of image acquisition, reduction in variability in quality of imaging and reporting, and ultimately better patient care. Clear communication of the echocardiographic findings to the surgical team, as well as understanding the impact of new findings on the surgical plan, are paramount. Equally important is the need for complete understanding of the technical steps of the surgical procedures being performed and the complications that may occur, in order to direct the postprocedure evaluation toward aspects directly related to the surgical procedure and to provide pertinent echocardiographic information. The rationale for this document is to outline a systematic approach describing how to apply the existing guidelines to questions on cardiac structure and function specific to the intraoperative environment in open, minimally invasive, or hybrid cardiac surgery procedures.

Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of transthyretin amyloidosis with cardiac involvement

Amyloidosis is caused by extracellular deposition of insoluble abnormal fibrils constituted by misfolded proteins, which can modify tissue anatomy and hinder the function of multiple organs including the heart. Amyloidosis that can affect the heart includes mostly systemic amyloidosis (amyloid light chain, AL) and transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTR). The latter can be acquired in elderly patients (ATTRwt), or be inherited in younger individuals (ATTRm). The diagnosis is demanding given the high phenotypic heterogeneity of the disease. Therefore, "red flags," which are suggestive features giving support to diagnostic suspicion, are extremely valuable. However, the lack of broad awareness among clinicians represents a major obstacle for early diagnosis and treatment of ATTR. Furthermore, recent implementation of noninvasive diagnostic techniques has revisited the need for endomyocardial biopsy (EMB). In fact, unlike AL amyloidosis, which requires tissue confirmation and typing for diagnosis, ATTR can now be diagnosed noninvasively with the combination of bone scintigraphy and the absence of a monoclonal protein. Securing the correct diagnosis is pivotal for the newly available therapeutic options targeting both ATTRm and ATTRwt, and are directed to either stabilization of the abnormal protein or the reduction of the production of transthyretin. The purpose of this article is to review the contemporary aspects of diagnosis and management of transthyretin amyloidosis with cardiac involvement, summarizing also the recent therapeutic advances with tafamidis, patisiran, and inotersen.

Multiparametric Echocardiography Scores for the Diagnosis of Cardiac Amyloidosis

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate the accuracy of a broad range of echocardiographic variables to develop multiparametric scores to diagnose CA in patients with proven light chain (AL) amyloidosis or those with increased heart wall thickness who had amyloid was suspected. We also aimed to further characterize the structural and functional changes associated with amyloid infiltration.

BACKGROUND

Cardiac amyloidosis (CA) is a serious but increasingly treatable cause of heart failure. Diagnosis is challenging and frequently unclear at echocardiography, which remains the most often used imaging tool.

METHODS

We studied 1,187 consecutive patients evaluated at 3 referral centers for CA and analyzed morphological, functional, and strain-derived echocardiogram parameters with the aim of developing a score-based diagnostic algorithm. Cardiac amyloid burden was quantified by using extracellular volume measurements at cardiac magnetic resonance.

RESULTS

A total of 332 patients were diagnosed with AL amyloidosis and 339 patients with transthyretin CA. Concentric remodeling and strain-derived parameters displayed the best diagnostic performance. A multivariable logistic regression model incorporating relative wall thickness, E wave/e' wave ratio, longitudinal strain, and tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion had the greatest diagnostic performance in AL amyloidosis (area under the curve: 0.90; 95% confidence interval: 0.87 to 0.92), whereas the addition of septal apical-to-base ratio yielded the best diagnostic accuracy in the increased heart wall thickness group (area under the curve: 0.80; 95% confidence interval: 0.85 to 0.90).

CONCLUSIONS

Specific functional and structural parameters characterize different burdens of CA deposition with different diagnostic performances and enable the definition of 2 scores that are sensitive and specific tools with which diagnose or exclude CA.

Differentiating Constriction from Restriction (from the Mayo Clinic Echocardiographic Criteria)

Constrictive Pericarditis (CP) is a curable and reversible form of severe diastolic heart failure. We aimed to investigate the diagnostic accuracy of published echocardiographic Mayo Clinic Criteria in differentiating 107 patients with surgically proven CP from 30 patients with restrictive cardiomyopathy due to cardiac Amyloidosis. Five principal echocardiographic and Doppler variables were remeasured on preoperative transthoracic echocardiogram namely (1) respiration-related ventricular septal shift; (2) respiratory variation in mitral inflow E pulsed Doppler velocity; 3) tissue Doppler medial mitral annular e' velocity; (4) ratio of medial mitral annular e' to lateral mitral annular e' velocity; and 5) hepatic vein (HV) pulsed Doppler diastolic flow reversal ratio. Etiology of CP included viral/idiopathic or autoimmune (75%), postcardiac surgery (13%) and postradiation (7%). Univariate logistic regression analysis showed that (1) respiration related ventricular septal shift, (2) percentage change in Mitral E velocity, (3) medial e' velocity ≥9 cm/sec, (4) medial e'/lateral e' ratio ≥0.91, (5) HV diastolic reversal ratio ≥0.79 were associated with the diagnosis of CP. Multivariable logistic regression analyses showed that medial e' velocity ≥9 cm/s was independently associated with the diagnosis of CP. Respiration related ventricular septal shift had the highest sensitivity, whereas medial e' velocity ≥9 cm/s has the highest specificity to diagnose CP (Areas under curves 0.99, p 0.001). Combining respiration related ventricular septal shift with medial e' velocity ≥9 cm/s gave a desirable sensitivity (80%) and specificity (92%). Adding reversal ratio to this combination further increased the specificity (97%) but dropped the sensitivity (70%) to diagnose CP.

A case report: multiple right ventricular diverticula with constrictive pericarditis and right heart failure

Background

Right ventricular diverticula (RVD) are very rare congenital anomalies and their association with constrictive pericarditis is even rarer. So far, only one case has been published in literature.

Case summary

We report a case of multiple congenital RVD with constrictive pericarditis and right heart failure which was incidentally identified on surveillance computed tomography (CT) for abdominal lymphangioma. Interval CT, echocardiography, and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) studies were performed and reviewed. Computed tomography abdomen showed hepatic congestion with features of portal hypertension, increasing size of the RVD on review of serial CTs, and eccentric foci of pericardial calcification. Echocardiography performed for breathlessness demonstrated supranormal early diastolic tissue velocities with average of 19.8 cms⁻¹ and a septal bounce phenomenon on m-mode imaging suggesting constrictive physiology, which triggered a CMR referral. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging HASTE and right ventricular (RV) outflow tract imaging showed four outpouchings along RV free wall, the largest measuring 4.5 × 2 cm with a sizeable neck. These outpouchings displayed a trabecular network and/or were contractile aiding the diagnosis of diverticula as opposed to aneurysms. Right ventricular function was moderately compromised, whereas left ventricular function was preserved.

Discussion

Right ventricular diverticula can be associated with, and potentially be causative of, pericardial thickening and calcification eventually leading to constrictive pericarditis and heart failure.

Prognostic Value of Time Interval Between Mitral and Tricuspid Valve Opening in Patients With Heart Failure

BACKGROUND

We used dual Doppler echocardiography to measure the time interval between the mitral and tricuspid valve opening (MO-TO time), which we expected would reflect the balance between left and right ventricular hemodynamics. Methods and Results: We prospectively enrolled 60 patients with heart failure (HF) and sinus rhythm. The MO-TO time was measured in addition to routine echocardiography parameters, invasive hemodynamic parameters and plasma B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) level in all patients. Patients were divided into 2 groups based on the MO-TO time: MOP (mitral opening preceding tricuspid opening), and TOP (tricuspid opening preceding mitral opening) groups. We followed up the predefined adverse outcomes (cardiovascular [CV] death and hospitalization due to worsening HF) for 1 year. Pulmonary artery wedge pressure (PAWP) and mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) were higher in the MOP than in the TOP group (P<0.001; P<0.001, respectively). The probability of an adverse CV outcome was higher in the MOP than in the TOP group (log-rank test; P=0.002). Addition of MOP improved the predictive power of univariate predictors (mitral E/A ratio and BNP) in the bivariate Cox analysis (P=0.017, P=0.024, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

MOP reflects pulmonary hypertension caused by left heart disease and has prognostic value in predicting adverse CV events in patients with HF.

Mitral annular velocity measurement with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging using a novel annular tracking algorithm: Validation against echocardiography

BACKGROUND

Doppler based mitral annular velocities are an integral part of echocardiographic left ventricular diastolic function assessment. Although these measurements can be obtained by phase contrast cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (PC-CMR), this approach has limitations. The aims of this study were to assess the accuracy and reproducibility of a high temporal resolution steady-state free precession (SSFP) cine acquisition coupled with semi-automated mitral annular tracking to measure tissue velocity, and compare to echocardiography as the reference method.

METHODS

High temporal resolution (17 ms) 4-chamber cines were acquired in 25 volunteers using retrospective and prospective gating on a 3.0 T magnet. Mitral annular early (e') and late (a') tissue velocities were derived using a novel algorithm to semi-automatically detect the mitral valve insertion points and track its motion. Additionally, PC-CMR was used to measure mitral inflow early diastolic (E) velocity. Those measurements were also obtained using echocardiography based pulsed and tissue Doppler techniques, on the same day.

RESULTS

Subjects were on average 34 ± 14 years-old (48% male). The lateral annulus e' measurements had the best agreement with echocardiography with a concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) of 0.76 and 0.75 for prospectively and retrospectively gated cine CMR respectively. There was no significant difference in the lateral annular tissue velocities between echocardiography (13.8 ± 3.7 cm/s) and prospective (13.4 ± 3.7 cm/s) or retrospective (14.0 ± 3.7) acquisitions. Similarly, CMR measurement of E/e' (a surrogate marker for LV filling pressures) using the lateral e' velocity showed moderate agreement with echocardiography (CCC of 0.56 and 0.51 for prospective and retrospective acquisitions respectively) without a significant difference in ratios (5.3 ± 1.6 and 5.0 ± 1.3) compared to echocardiography (5.2 ± 1.4). Intra- and inter-observer reproducibility of the CMR-based annular velocity measurements was good.

CONCLUSION

Measurements of mitral annular tissue velocities can be obtained from SSFP 4-chamber cine images using a semi-automated annular tracking algorithm, and demonstrates moderate agreement with echocardiography. The semi-automated method can provide quantitative mitral annular velocity measurements directly from conventional cine images, thereby providing additional clinically relevant information. The accuracy of this method in patients with diastolic dysfunction remains to be determined.

Diagnosis of cardiac amyloidosis: a systematic review on the role of imaging and biomarkers

BACKGROUND

Cardiac Amyloidosis (CA) pertains to the cardiac involvement of a group of diseases, in which misfolded proteins deposit in tissues and cause progressive organ damage. The vast majority of CA cases are caused by light chain amyloidosis (AL) and transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTR). The increased awareness of these diseases has led to an increment of newly diagnosed cases each year.

METHODS

We performed multiple searches on MEDLINE, EMBASE and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Several search terms were used, such as "cardiac amyloidosis", "diagnostic modalities cardiac amyloidosis" and "staging cardiac amyloidosis". Emphasis was given on original articles describing novel diagnostic and staging approaches to the disease.

RESULTS

Imaging techniques are indispensable to diagnosing CA. Novel ultrasonographic techniques boast high sensitivity and specificity for the disease. Nuclear imaging has repeatedly proved its worth in the diagnostic procedure, with efforts now focusing on standardization and quantification of amyloid load. Because the latter would be invaluable for any staging system, those spearheading research in magnetic resonance imaging of the disease are also trying to come up with accurate tools to quantify amyloid burden. Staging tools are currently being developed and validated for ATTR CA, in the spirit of the acclaimed Mayo Staging System for AL.

CONCLUSION

Cardiac involvement confers significant morbidity and mortality in all types of amyloidosis. Great effort is made to reduce the time to diagnosis, as treatment in the initial stages of the disease is tied to better prognosis. The results of these efforts are highly sensitive and specific diagnostic modalities that are also reasonably cost effective.

Multimodality Imaging in Restrictive Cardiomyopathies: An EACVI expert consensus document In collaboration with the "Working Group on myocardial and pericardial diseases" of the European Society of Cardiology Endorsed by The Indian Academy of Echocardiography

Restrictive cardiomyopathies (RCMs) are a diverse group of myocardial diseases with a wide range of aetiologies, including familial, genetic and acquired diseases and ranging from very rare to relatively frequent cardiac disorders. In all these diseases, imaging techniques play a central role. Advanced imaging techniques provide important novel data on the diagnostic and prognostic assessment of RCMs. This EACVI consensus document provides comprehensive information for the appropriateness of all non-invasive imaging techniques for the diagnosis, prognostic evaluation, and management of patients with RCM.

Recent advances in the noninvasive strategies of cardiac amyloidosis

The heart, like any organ in the body, is susceptible to amyloid deposition. Although more than 30 types of protein can cause amyloidosis, only two types commonly deposit in the ventricular myocardium: amyloid light chain and amyloid transthyretin. Amyloid cardiomyopathy is usually a major determinant of patient outcomes, and the diagnosis of heart involvement can be often relatively under-diagnosed, owing to nonspecific presenting symptoms and signs at a subclinical stage. The diagnosis of cardiac amyloidosis is usually performed by endomyocardial biopsy; however, the invasive nature and related high-risk complications restrict its wide use in clinical settings. Recently, with the advent of innovative techniques used for evaluating cardiac amyloidosis, noninvasive methods become increasingly important, especially in earlier diagnosis, distinguishing typing, risk prediction and response to treatment. Here, we will review recent developments in the noninvasive methods used in the assessment of cardiac amyloidosis, focused on the laboratory biomarkers and imaging modalities.

New Cardiac Imaging Algorithms to Diagnose Constrictive Pericarditis Versus Restrictive Cardiomyopathy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Echocardiography is the mainstay in the diagnostic evaluation of constrictive pericarditis (CP) and restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM), but no single echocardiographic parameter is sufficiently robust to accurately distinguish between the two conditions. The present review summarizes the recent advances in echocardiography that promise to improve its diagnostic performance for this purpose. The role of other imaging modalities such as cardiac computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and invasive hemodynamic assessment in the overall diagnostic approach is also discussed briefly.

RECENT FINDINGS

A recent study has demonstrated improved diagnostic accuracy of echocardiography with integration of multiple conventional echocardiographic parameters in to a step-wise algorithm. Concurrently, the studies using speckle-tracking echocardiography have revealed distinct and disparate patterns of myocardial mechanical abnormalities in CP and RCM with their ability to distinguish between the two conditions. The incorporation of machine-learning algorithms into echocardiography workflow permits easy integration of the wealth of the diagnostic data available and promises to further enhance the diagnostic accuracy of echocardiography. New imaging algorithms are continuously being evolved to permit accurate distinction between CP and RCM. Further research is needed to validate the accuracy of these newer algorithms and to define their place in the overall diagnostic approach for this purpose.

Constrictive pericarditis: diagnosis, management and clinical outcomes

Constrictive pericarditis (CP) is a form of diastolic heart failure that arises because an inelastic pericardium inhibits cardiac filling. This disorder must be considered in the differential diagnosis for unexplained heart failure, particularly when the left ventricular ejection fraction is preserved. Risk factors for the development of CP include prior cardiac surgery and radiation therapy, but most cases are still deemed to be idiopathic. Making the diagnosis may be challenging and requires meticulous echocardiographic assessment, often supplemented by cross-sectional cardiac imaging and haemodynamic catheterisation. The key pathophysiological concepts, which serve as the basis for many of the diagnostic criteria, remain: (1) dissociation of intrathoracic and intracardiac pressures and (2) enhanced ventricular interaction. Complete surgical pericardiectomy is the only effective treatment for chronic CP. A subset of patients with subacute inflammatory CP, often identified by cardiac MRI, may respond to anti-inflammatory treatments.

Systematic review of non-invasive cardiovascular imaging in the diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis

Background

Diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis (CP) can be challenging. It can be nearly impossible to distinguish CP from other causes of right heart failure. Although various imaging modalities help in the diagnosis, no test is definitive. Several reviews have addressed the role of various imaging techniques in the diagnosis of CP but a systematic review has not yet been published.

Objective

Our intention was to study the ability of various non-invasive imaging modalities to diagnose CP in patients with surgically confirmed disease and to apply our findings to develop a clinically useful diagnostic algorithm.

Methods

A PubMed (NLM) search was performed with MeSH term “constrictive pericarditis”. Original articles that investigated the ability of various cardiovascular imaging modalities to noninvasively diagnose surgically confirmed CP were included in our review. Investigations that included any cases without surgical confirmation were excluded.

Results

The PubMed search yielded 3001 results with MeSH term “constrictive pericarditis” (January 8, 2016). We identified (40) studies on CP that matched our inclusion criteria. We summarized our results sorted by individual non-invasive CV imaging modalities – echocardiography, cardiac computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Under each imaging modality, we grouped our discussion based on different parameters useful in CP diagnosis.

Conclusions

In conclusion, contemporary diagnosis of CP is based on clinical features and echocardiography. Cardiac MRI is recommended in patients where echocardiography is not diagnostic. Both cardiac MRI and CT can guide surgical planning but we prefer MRI as it provides both structural and functional information.

Pericardiectomy is Associated with Improvement in Longitudinal Displacement of Left Ventricular Free Wall Due to Increased Counterclockwise Septal-to-Lateral Rotational Displacement

BACKGROUND

Pericardiectomy is an effective intervention for constrictive pericarditis. Speckle-tracking echocardiography can provide quantitative information not only about longitudinal strain (LS) but about longitudinal displacement (LD) and septal-to-lateral rotational displacement (SLRD). The aim of this study was to investigate whether pericardiectomy improves myocardial mechanics using speckle-tracking analysis.

METHODS

Eighty-three patients with constrictive pericarditis who underwent echocardiography were retrospectively assessed (mean age, 58 ± 12 years; 72 men; 50 idiopathic, 20 postoperative, four viral, three radiation, and six others) and compared with 20 healthy volunteers. LD and SLRD were measured from the apical four-chamber view and global LS from three apical views.

RESULTS

LD was less in the constrictive pericarditis group compared with control subjects (P < .001). Only lateral LS was significantly less than that of control subjects (P < .001), but septal LS was similar (P = .48). In pre- and post-pericardial surgery comparisons (n = 27), values of septal and lateral LD were almost identical (mean, 13.6 ± 4.7 vs 13.3 ± 5.4 mm; P = .70) before pericardiectomy, but septal LD decreased (mean, 9.3 ± 3.5 mm; P < .001) and lateral LD increased (mean, 16.8 ± 4.7 mm; P = .0106) after the surgery, even though the difference in LS between the septal and lateral walls decreased (from 5.6 ± 5.3% to 2.5 ± 4.2%, P = .008). Systolic whole-heart swinging motion significantly increased to a counterclockwise direction after surgery (mean SLRD, -0.8 ± 3.3° vs 2.1 ± 3.0°; P = .001). Although the change in SLRD after pericardiectomy was not different between patients with decreases and increases in New York Heart Association class, SLRD change was significantly greater in patients who received fewer diuretics after surgery (mean, 4.00 ± 0.91 vs 0.27 ± 1.47; P = .027).

CONCLUSIONS

After surgical removal of the pericardium, LD of the septal and lateral walls became significantly different, and counterclockwise SLRD increased, reflecting loss of pericardial support.

At the Heart of the Matter

Echocardiography is an excellent method for evaluating cardiac morphology and dynamic function. It has a long history of innovative thinking mixed with some degree of serendipity. Its early applications were as a tool to evaluate the mitral valve, left ventricular characteristics, and pericardial effusion. Today it has evolved into a robust modality that allows for a very wide range cardiac interrogation, able to evaluate the valves, chambers, myocardium, and pericardium. The practice of echocardiography also is often separate from that of general or vascular sonography. The objective of this article is to provide the non–cardiac sonographer with an overview and appreciation of the basic principles and practices of echocardiography. It is not meant as a guide to scanning but rather, as a vehicle to spark the interest and imagination of the reader.

The mosaic of the cardiac amyloidosis diagnosis: role of imaging in subtypes and stages of the disease

Cardiac amyloidosis is a rare, infiltrative cardiomyopathy that presents with thickened ventricular walls and progressive heart failure. The morphological findings and clinical features are shared with many other diseases (i.e. hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 'athlete's heart,' Fabry disease, and hypertensive cardiomyopathy), and misdiagnosis occurs frequently. Cardiologists have many instruments that can help reach a correct diagnosis in a relatively short time. As tiles of a mosaic are placed to create an image, thoughtful and smart use of the different diagnostic tools available allows the opportunity to identify amyloid infiltration of the myocardium. When the myocardium is involved, prognosis is poor, so identification of its involvement is crucial for disease management. The diagnostic process begins with an accurate evaluation of clinical elements and includes cardiovascular imaging (echocardiography, magnetic resonance, and nuclear medicine), electrocardiography, serological assays, and myocardial biopsy; only the appropriate integration of these instruments can reveal the diagnosis to an expert physician. The latest improvements in non-invasive diagnostic techniques with increased diagnostic power have reduced the need for biopsy.

Diagnostic concordance of echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance-based tissue tracking for differentiating constrictive pericarditis from restrictive cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND

Variations in longitudinal deformation of the left ventricle have been suggested to be useful for differentiating chronic constrictive pericarditis (CP) and restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM). We assessed left ventricular mechanics derived from cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) cine-based and 2-dimensional echocardiography-based tissue tracking to determine intermodality consistency of diagnostic information for differentiating CP from RCM.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We retrospectively identified 92 patients who underwent both CMR and 2-dimensional echocardiography and who had a final diagnosis of CP (n=28), RCM (n=30), or no structural heart disease (n=34). Global longitudinal strain from long-axis views and circumferential strain from short-axis views were measured on 2-dimensional echocardiographic and CMR cine images using the same offline software. Logistic regression models with receiver operating characteristics curves, continuous net reclassification improvement, and the integrated discrimination improvement (IDI) were used for assessing the incremental predictive performance. Global longitudinal strain was higher in patients with CP than in those with RCM (P<0.001), and both techniques were found to have similar diagnostic value (area under the curve, 0.84 versus 0.88 for CMR and echocardiography, respectively). For echocardiography, the addition of global longitudinal strain to respiratory septal shift and early diastolic mitral annular velocity resulted in improved continuous net reclassification improvement (P<0.001 for both) and integrated discrimination improvement (P=0.005 and 0.024) for both models. Similarly, for CMR, the addition of global longitudinal strain to septal shift and pericardial thickness resulted in improved continuous net reclassification improvement (P<0.001 for both) and integrated discrimination improvement (P=0.003 and <0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

CMR and echocardiography tissue tracking-derived left ventricular mechanics provide comparable diagnostic information for differentiating CP from RCM.

Quantitative and pattern analyses of continuous-wave Doppler-derived pulmonary regurgitant flow velocity for the diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis

BACKGROUND

Many echocardiographic features of constrictive pericarditis (CP) have been reported, but each alone has a limitation either in sensitivity or in specificity. Continuous-wave Doppler-derived flow velocity of pulmonary regurgitation can reflect the diastolic right ventricular pressure pattern characteristic of CP and be useful for its detection.

METHODS

Fifteen patients with CP, 18 patients with restrictive cardiomyopathy, and 20 normal subjects were studied retrospectively. Using continuous-wave Doppler echocardiography, pulmonary regurgitation velocities were measured at the early diastolic peak (VMAx), mid-diastolic inflection point (VIFL), and late diastolic minimal point (VMIN).

RESULTS

VIFL, VIFL/VMAx, VMIN, and VMIN/VMAx were significantly lower in the CP group compared with the restrictive cardiomyopathy and normal groups. Prevalence rates of patients with early mid-diastolic inflection, VIFL/VMAx < 0.5, VMIN < 50 cm/sec, and VMIN/VMAx < 0.33 were significantly greater in the CP group compared with the other groups. Sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of CP were 93% and 74%, respectively, for the presence of early mid-diastolic inflection, 73% and 100% for VIFL/VMAx < 0.5, 73% and 97% for VMIN < 50 cm/sec, and 93% and 92% for VMIN/VMAx < 0.33.

CONCLUSIONS

The quantitative and pattern analyses of continuous-wave Doppler-derived pulmonary regurgitation velocity could enhance the accuracy of echocardiographic detection of CP.

Constrictive pericarditis--a curable diastolic heart failure

Constrictive pericarditis can result from a stiff pericardium that prevents satisfactory diastolic filling. The distinction between constrictive pericarditis and other causes of heart failure, such as restrictive cardiomyopathy, is important because pericardiectomy can cure constrictive pericarditis. Diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis is based on characteristic haemodynamic and anatomical features determined using echocardiography, cardiac catheterization, cardiac MRI, and CT. The Mayo Clinic echocardiography and cardiac catheterization haemodynamic diagnostic criteria for constrictive pericarditis are based on the unique features of ventricular interdependence and dissociation of intrathoracic and intracardiac pressures seen when the pericardium is constricted. A complete pericardiectomy can restore satisfactory diastolic filling by removing the constrictive pericardium in patients with constrictive pericarditis. However, if inflammation of the pericardium is the predominant constrictive mechanism, anti-inflammatory therapy might alleviate this transient condition without a need for surgery. Early diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis is, therefore, of paramount clinical importance. An improved understanding of how constrictive pericarditis develops after an initiating event is critical to prevent this diastolic heart failure. In this Review, we discuss the aetiology, pathophysiology, and diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis, with a specific emphasis on how to differentiate this disease from conditions with similar clinical presentations.

Echocardiographic Diagnosis of Constrictive Pericarditis

Background—

Constrictive pericarditis is a potentially reversible cause of heart failure that may be difficult to differentiate from restrictive myocardial disease and severe tricuspid regurgitation. Echocardiography provides an important opportunity to evaluate for constrictive pericarditis, and definite diagnostic criteria are needed.

Methods and Results—

Patients with surgically confirmed constrictive pericarditis (n=130) at Mayo Clinic (2008–2010) were compared with patients (n=36) diagnosed with restrictive myocardial disease or severe tricuspid regurgitation after constrictive pericarditis was considered but ruled out. Comprehensive echocardiograms were reviewed in blinded fashion. Five principal echocardiographic variables were selected based on prior studies and potential for clinical use: (1) respiration-related ventricular septal shift, (2) variation in mitral inflow E velocity, (3) medial mitral annular e' velocity, (4) ratio of medial mitral annular e' to lateral e', and (5) hepatic vein expiratory diastolic reversal ratio. All 5 principal variables differed significantly between the groups. In patients with atrial fibrillation or flutter (n=29), all but mitral inflow velocity remained significantly different. Three variables were independently associated with constrictive pericarditis: (1) ventricular septal shift, (2) medial mitral e', and (3) hepatic vein expiratory diastolic reversal ratio. The presence of ventricular septal shift in combination with either medial e'≥9 cm/s or hepatic vein expiratory diastolic reversal ratio ≥0.79 corresponded to a desirable combination of sensitivity (87%) and specificity (91%). The specificity increased to 97% when all 3 factors were present, but the sensitivity decreased to 64%.

Conclusions—

Echocardiography allows differentiation of constrictive pericarditis from restrictive myocardial disease and severe tricuspid regurgitation. Respiration-related ventricular septal shift, preserved or increased medial mitral annular e' velocity, and prominent hepatic vein expiratory diastolic flow reversals are independently associated with the diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis.

Constrictive pericarditis developed after childhood repair of ventricular septal defect

The patient was an 18-year-old man who had undergone surgical closure of ventricular septal defect at the age of 2 years. The patient was urgently hospitalized due to syncope after longstanding uneventful postoperative course, and diagnosed with atrial flutter. Echocardiography showed poor ventricular motion and markedly dilated both atriums. After termination of atrial flutter, ventricular motion improved remarkably; however, there was little improvement in heart failure. Although we suspected constrictive pericarditis, calcification observed on computed tomography was too localized to fully explain the cause of severe diastolic dysfunction. Based on the waveform of mitral annular tissue Doppler imaging, we were strongly convinced of the underlying physiology of constrictive pericarditis. Pericardial decortications markedly improved heart failure symptoms. This case emphasizes that constrictive pericarditis could be a life-threatening complication in the remote phase after congenital heart surgery. It also emphasizes the importance of functional assessment by echocardiography to identify the cause-effect relation between imaging and clinical symptoms.

Biventricular Mechanics in Constrictive Pericarditis Comparison With Restrictive Cardiomyopathy and Impact of Pericardiectomy

Background—

The aim of our study was to compare myocardial mechanics of constrictive pericarditis (CP) with restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM), or healthy controls; to assess the impact of pericardial thickening detected by cardiac magnetic resonance on regional myocardial mechanics in CP; and to quantitate the effect of pericardiectomy on myocardial mechanics in CP.

Methods and Results—

Myocardial mechanics were evaluated by 2-dimensional speckle tracking in 52 consecutive patients with CP who underwent cardiac magnetic resonance examination before pericardiectomy, 35 patients with RCM, and 26 control subjects. CP patients had selectively depressed left ventricular (LV) anterolateral wall strain (LWS) and right ventricular (RV) free wall longitudinal systolic strain (FWS) but preserved LV septal wall systolic strain (SWS). In a comparison of RCM and normals, CP patients had significantly lower regional longitudinal systolic strain ratios (CP versus RCM and normal; LVLWS/LVSWS: 0.8±0.2 versus 1.1±0.2 and 1.0±0.2; P<0.001, RVFWS/LVSWS: 0.8±0.4 vs. 1.4±0.5 and 1.2±0.2; P<0.001). LVLWS/LVSWS was more robust than the LV lateral wall to LV septal wall ratio of early diastolic velocities at the LV base (LE′/SE′) in differentiating CP from RCM (area under the curve=0.91 versus 0.76; P =0.011). There was a significant inverse correlation between pericardial thickness and respective ventricular strains ( P =0.001). Pericardiectomy resulted in the improvement of the depressed LVLWS/LVSWS (0.83±0.18–0.95±0.12; P <0.001).

Conclusions—

Regional longitudinal systolic strain ratios are robust novel diagnostic tools for CP. Regional myocardial mechanics inversely correlates with adjacent pericardial segment thickness detected by cardiac magnetic resonance, and pericardiectomy leads to systolic strain improvement, which is more pronounced in right ventricular and LV free walls.

Changes in left atrial mechanics following pericardiectomy for pericardial constriction

BACKGROUND

Although impaired left ventricular (LV) filling in constrictive pericarditis (CP) is attributable to external constraints by a tethered pericardium, impaired left atrial (LA) function can further impair LV filling. Previous studies focused on the impact of a tethered pericardium on LV diastolic behavior, but its impact on LA function has been largely overlooked. The objectives of this study were to evaluate LA mechanics in CP and to assess the impact of pericardiectomy on LA mechanics.

METHODS

A total of 52 patients with CP (mean age, 57 ± 12 years) and 19 control subjects were studied retrospectively. All patients with CP underwent echocardiography before (median, 12 days; interquartile range, 5-34 days) and after pericardiectomy (median, 20 days; interquartile range, 5-64 days). Global LA longitudinal strain (ε) was calculated, which included peak negative ε (εnegative), peak positive ε (εpositive), and the sum of those values, total LA ε (εtotal), using speckle-tracking echocardiography with Velocity Vector Imaging. The regional difference of LA ε between the septal and lateral walls was assessed before and after the procedure.

RESULTS

Patients with CP showed depressed global LA εnegative, LA εtotal, and LA εpositive compared with controls. LA contractile (global LA εnegative) and reservoir functions (global LA εtotal) showed significant increases after pericardiectomy. Regional analysis revealed that the improvement in LA function after surgery was more apparent in lateral segments, while the regional function of septal walls was depressed after surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with CP have impaired LA mechanics, presumably because of the constrictive tethering process involving the left atrium. Speckle-tracking echocardiography showed consistent results of changes in LA mechanics with conventional echocardiographic parameters early after the procedure. Regional ε analysis aided in recognition of the impact of constrictive tethering and pericardiectomy on LA function.

Hiding in plain sight; constrictive pericarditis

We present a case of constrictive pericarditis that was especially difficult to diagnose. The patient presented with generalised oedema, dyspnoea and pleural effusions. History was significant for prior polysubstance abuse but was otherwise unremarkable. Physical examination revealed only jugular venous distention. CT demonstrated a normal pericardium with pleural effusions. Echocardiography showed mildly elevated right ventricular pressures with dyssynergic motion of the ventricular septum. No intervention was being carried out, but 1 month later further evaluation with a right and left heart catheterisation showed the classical square-root sign with equalisation of diastolic pressures in both ventricles as well as ventricular interdependence. Idiopathic constrictive pericarditis was thus diagnosed with a subsequent pericardial stripping which confirmed a thickened pericardium encasing the heart.

Chronic constrictive pericarditis

Constrictive pericarditis (CP) is a rare clinical entity that can pose diagnostic problems. The diagnosis of CP requires a high degree of clinical suspicion. The gold standard for diagnosis is cardiac catheterization with analysis of intracavitary pressure curves, which are high and, in end diastole, equal in all chambers. We present a patient with unexplained dyspnea, recurrent right-side pleural effusion, and ascites. Analysis of the ascitic fluid revealed a high protein content and an elevated serum-ascites gradient. Echocardiography, computed tomography, and cardiac catheterization revealed the diagnosis of CP. He underwent complete pericardiectomy and to date has made a good recovery. The diagnosis of CP is often neglected by admitting physicians, who usually attribute the symptoms to another disease process. This case exemplifies the difficulty in diagnosing this condition, as well as the investigation required, and provides a discussion of the benefit and outcomes of prompt treatment.

Atypical chest x-ray calcification in an idiopathic constrictive pericarditis case

Constrictive pericarditis is an uncommon cause of heart failure. It is a clinical entity caused by thickening, fibrosis, and/or calcification of the pericardium. We present a 50-year-old female patient who was admitted to our institution with a 6-month history of progressive dyspnea on exertion, abdominal swelling, and lower extremity edema. Her chest X-ray revealed an oblique linear calcification in the cardiac silhouette. Transthoracic echocardiography revealed biatrial enlargement. Left ventricular size and systolic function were normal. Cardiac computed tomography revealed the pericardial thickening (>5 mm) and heavy calcification in left atrioventricular groove. Simultaneous right and left heart catheterization showed elevation and equalization of right-sided and left-sided diastolic filling pressures, with characteristic dip, and plateau. Pericardiectomy was performed which revealed a thick, fibrous, calcified, and densely adherent pericardium constricting the heart. The postoperative period was uneventful and was in NYHA functional class I after 3 months.