Relation of electrocardiographic changes in pulmonary embolism to right ventricular enlargement

Differentiating electrocardiographic indications of massive and submassive pulmonary embolism: A cross-sectional study in Southern Iran from 2015 to 2020

BACKGROUND

Although using electrocardiogram (ECG) for pulmonary embolism (PE) risk stratification has shown mixed results, it is currently used as supplementary evidence in risk stratification. This cross-sectional study aimed to assess and compare ECG findings of massive and submassive PE versus segmental PE.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 250 hospitalized patients with a confirmed diagnosis of acute PE from 2015 to 2020 in Southern Iran. Demographic variables, clinical data, troponin levels, on-admission ECG findings, echocardiography findings, and ECG findings 24 h after receiving anticoagulants or thrombolytics were extracted.

RESULTS

Patients diagnosed with submassive or massive PE exhibited significantly higher rates of right axis deviation (p = .010), abnormal ST segment (p < .0001), S1Q3T3 pattern (p < .0001), inverted T wave in leads V1-V3 (p < .0001), inverted T wave in leads V4-V6 (p < .0001), and inverted T wave in leads V1-V6 (p < .0001). In a multivariable model, inverted T wave in leads V1-V3, inverted T wave in leads V4-V6, pulse rate, and positive troponin test were the statistically independent variables for predicting submassive or massive PE. Furthermore, inverted T wave in leads V1-V3 (sensitivity: 85%, specificity: 95%, accuracy: 93%, AUC: 0.902) and troponin levels (sensitivity: 72%, specificity: 86%, accuracy: 83%, AUC: 0.792) demonstrated the best diagnostic test performance for discriminating submassive or massive PE from segmental PE.

CONCLUSION

In addition to clinical rules, ECG can serve as an ancillary tool for assessing more invasive testing and earlier aggressive treatments among patients with PE, as it can provide valuable information for the diagnosis and risk stratification of submassive or massive PE.

The impact of right bundle branch block and SIQIII-type patterns in determining risk levels in acute pulmonary embolism

Background: Electrocardiography (ECG) findings in acute pulmonary embolism (PE) are known to be related to various right ventricular (RV) alterations. These abnormalities are not included in risk stratification algorithms despite emerging evidence of their association with patient outcomes. We aimed to analyze the impact of right bundle branch block (RBBB) and/or SIQIII patterns as indicators for determining the level of risk in patients with PE. Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study including all patients with confirmed acute PE hospitalized from January 2008 to December 2019 in two tertiary care cardiology departments. The first ECG taken at admission was selected and the analysis focused on the presence of a complete or an incomplete RBBB and SIQIII-type patterns. Results: A total of 255 patients were divided into two groups: Group I (47.8%, n=122) included patients with PE without RBBB nor SIQIII patterns, and Group II (52.2%, n=133) included patients with RBBB and/or SIQIII patterns. Patients in group II presented significantly more frequently with acute right heart symptoms (45.1% vs. 18%, p<0.001) and cardiogenic shock at admission (31.6 vs. 4.1%, p<0.001). Echocardiographic parameters indicating right heart injury also occurred more significantly in group II patients (p<0.001). By univariate analysis, patients in group II were found to be significantly associated with in-hospital mortality (22.6 vs. 6.1%, p=0.002) and major cardiovascular events (MACEs) during hospitalization (43.3 vs. 13.7%, p<0.001). Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified five independent factors predictive of MACEs: SIQIII and/or RBBB, renal failure, positive troponin levels, RV dysfunction and right heart failure symptoms during initial presentation. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis identified the inclusion in Group II and the presence of SIQIII pattern as predictors of overall mortality (p<0.001). Conclusions: Our study suggests an important and independent prognostic value of RBBB and SIQIII patterns and their usefulness in determining the outcome of PE patients.

Case report: An elderly woman with recurrent syncope after pacemaker implantation

Syncope caused by atrioventricular block may occur as a result of a cardiac vasodepressor reflex. This article reports on a case of recurrent syncope in an 80-year-old woman with high-grade atrioventricular block, documented by electrocardiographic monitoring after pacemaker implantation. Pacemaker testing revealed stable impedance and sensing but a clear increase in the ventricular capture threshold at outputs. This case is unusual because the patient's primary diagnosis was non-cardiac. However, a combination of high D-dimer, hypoxemia, and computerized tomography scan of the pulmonary artery confirmed the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism (PE). With 1 month of anticoagulant therapy, the ventricular capture threshold gradually dropped to the normal range and syncope resolved. This is the first report of an electrophysiological phenomenon detected by pacemaker testing in a patient with syncope arising from PE.

Bradycardia as a Rare Sign of Pulmonary Embolism: A Case Report of Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis in Cardiac Arrest Using Point-of-Care Ultrasound

We describe a case of cardiac arrest with pulmonary embolism and deep venous thrombosis diagnosed by point-of-care ultrasound, which resulted in a favorable outcome. In this article, we have also delineated bradycardia as an atypical sign of pulmonary embolism and explained the potential mechanism behind it.

Electrocardiographic findings associated with early clinical deterioration in acute pulmonary embolism

OBJECTIVES

We sought to determine associations of early electrocardiogram (ECG) patterns with clinical deterioration (CD) within 5 days and with RV abnormality (abnlRV) by echocardiography in pulmonary embolism (PE).

METHODS

In this prospective, multicenter study of newly confirmed PE patients, early echocardiography and initial ECG were examined. Initial ECG patterns included lead-specific ST-segment elevation (STE) or depression (STD), T-wave inversion (TWI), supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), sinus tachycardia, and right bundle branch block as complete (cRBBB) or incomplete (iRBBB). We defined CD as respiratory failure, hypotension, dysrhythmia, cardiac arrest, escalated PE intervention, or death within 5 days. We calculated odds ratios (ORs) for CD and abnlRV with univariate and full multivariate models in the presence of other variables.

RESULTS

Of 1676 patients, 1629 (97.2%) had both ECG and GDE; 415/1676 (24.7%) had CD, and 529/1629 (32.4%) had abnlRV. AbnlRV had an OR for CD of 4.25 (3.35, 5.38). By univariable analysis, the absence of abnormal ECG patterns had OR for CD and abnlRV of 0.34 (0.26, 0.44; p < 0.001) and 0.24 (0.18, 0.31; p < 0.001), respectively. By multivariable analyses, one ECG pattern had a significant OR for CD: SVT 2.87 (1.66, 5.00). Significant ORS for abnlRV were: TWI V_2-4 4.0 (2.64, 6.12), iRBBB 2.63 (1.59, 4.38), STE aVR 2.42 (1.58, 3.74), S1-Q3-T3 2.42 (1.70, 3.47), and sinus tachycardia 1.68 (1.14, 2.49).

CONCLUSIONS

SVT was an independent predictor of CD. TWI V_2-4 , iRBBB, STE aVR, sinus tachycardia, and S1-Q3-T3 were independent predictors of abnlRV. Finding one or more of these ECG patterns may increase considerations for performance of echocardiography to look for RV abnormalities and, if present, inform concerns for early clinical deterioration.

Short-term prognostic value of clinical data in hospitalized patients with intermediate-risk acute pulmonary embolism

BACKGROUND

Intermediate-risk acute pulmonary embolism (APE) patients are usually defined as hemodynamically stable, comprehending a great therapeutic dilemma. Although anticoagulation therapy is sufficient for most intermediate-risk APE patients, some patients can deteriorate and eventually require a systemic fibrinolytic agent or thrombectomy. Hence, this study aimed to evaluate the predictive value of differences in clinical data for the short-term prognosis of intermediate-risk APE patients.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort of 74 intermediate-risk APE patients confirmed by computed tomography pulmonary angiography was analyzed in the present study. Adverse clinical event outcomes included PE-related in-hospital deaths, critical systolic blood pressure consistently under 90 mmHg, refractory to volume loading and vasopressor infusion requirements, mechanical ventilation, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The APE patients were stratified into two groups: adverse outcome (n = 25) and control (n = 49) groups. Then, the clinical data of the two groups were compared. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were used to explore the predictive value of white blood cell (WBC) counts and the right to left ventricular short-axis (RV/LV) ratio. Model calibration was assessed using the Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit statistic.

RESULTS

The brain natriuretic peptide, WBC count, and the RV/LV ratio were higher in patients with adverse outcomes compared to controls. The APE patients with adverse outcomes presented significantly higher rates of syncope, Negative T waves (NTW) in V1-V3, intermediate-high risk, thrombolytic therapy, and low arterial oxygen saturation (SaO₂) compared to controls. In the multivariate logistic regression analysis, the SaO₂ < 90%, [odds ratio (OR) 5.343, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.241-23.008; p = 0.024], RV/LV ratio (OR 7.429, 95% CI 1.145-48.209; p = 0.036), Syncope (OR 12.309, 95% CI 1.702-89.032; p = 0.013), NTW in V1-V3 (OR 5.617, 95% CI 1.228-25.683; p = 0.026), and WBC count (OR 1.212, 95% CI 1.035-1.419; p = 0.017) were independent predictors of in-hospital adverse outcomes among APE patients. The ROC curve analysis indicated that the RV/LV ratio can be used to predict adverse outcomes (AUC = 0.748, p < 0.01) and calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit test, p = 0.070). Moreover, an RV/LV ratio > 1.165 was predictive of adverse outcomes with sensitivity and specificity of 88.00 and 59.20%, respectively. The WBC counts were also able to predict adverse outcomes (AUC = 0.752, p < 0.01) and calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness of fit test, p = 0.251). A WBC count > 9.05 was predictive of adverse outcomes with sensitivity and specificity of 68.00 and 73.50%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Overall, a SaO₂ < 90%, RV/LV ratio, Syncope, NTW in V1-V3, and WBC counts could independently predict adverse outcomes in hospitalized intermediate-risk APE patients.

Pulmonary embolism diagnosis: clinical assessment at the front door

This first of two practice reviews addresses pulmonary embolism (PE) diagnosis considering important aspects of PE clinical presentation and comparing evidence-based PE testing strategies. A companion paper addresses the management of PE. Symptoms and signs of PE are varied, and emergency physicians frequently use testing to 'rule out' the diagnosis in people with respiratory or cardiovascular symptoms. The emergency clinician must balance the benefit of reassuring negative PE testing with the risks of iatrogenic harms from over investigation and overdiagnosis.

A Novel Electrocardiography Model for the Diagnosis of Acute Pulmonary Embolism

Acute pulmonary embolism (acPE) is a severe disease that is often misdiagnosed as it is difficult to detect quickly and accurately. In this study, a novel electrocardiogram (ECG) model was used to estimate the probability of acPE rapidly via analysis of ECG characteristics. A total of 327 patients with acPE who were diagnosed at the Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital (SPPH) between 2018 and 2021 were retrospectively studied. A total of 331 patients were randomly selected as the control group, which included patients hospitalized during the same time period. The control group included patients who presented with characteristic symptoms of acPE, but this diagnosis was ruled out following further diagnostic testing. This study compared the diagnostic value of the ECG model with those of another ECG scoring model (Daniel-ECG score) and the most common prediction models (Wells score and Geneva score). This study established an ECG-predictive model using analysis of the ECG abnormalities in patients with acPE. The final ECG model included certain novel ECG signs that had not been incorporated in the previous ECG score of the patients, and thus, compared to the previous ECG score, exhibited a more favorable area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) value (0.8741). The model developed in this study was named the SPPH-ECG model. Furthermore, this study compared the SPPH-ECG model with Daniel-ECG score, Wells score, and Geneva score, and the SPPH-ECG model was demonstrated to exhibit a superior AUC value (0.8741), sensitivity (79.08%), negative predictive value (79.52%), and test accuracy (79.42%), while the Geneva score presented superior specificity (100%) and positive predictive value (100%) compared with the SPPH-ECG model. In conclusion, the SPPH-ECG model may play a role in ruling out acPE in patients during diagnostic testing and diagnose acPE rapidly and accurately in combination with the Geneva scoring system.

Clinical and Electrocardiographic Findings for Predicting the Severity of Pulmonary Valve Stenosis in Dogs

Pulmonary valve stenosis (PS) in dogs is usually suspected due to the presence of a heart murmur and clinical signs. Echocardiography is needed to confirm the diagnosis and define the severity of PS. This retrospective study evaluated the utility of clinical and electrocardiographic (ECG) findings in the prediction of PS severity. Data regarding heart murmur and ECG analysis were gathered. Ninety-seven dogs with PS were included. A murmur grade ≥IV/VI was predictive of severe PS (area under curve (AUC) = 0.71; sensitivity (Se) = 95%; specificity (Sp) = 33%; p = 0.003). In lead II, P wave amplitude >0.35 mV (AUC = 0.67; Se = 31%; Sp = 100%; p = 0.038), Q wave < 0.15 mV (AUC = 0.70; Se = 70%; Sp = 59%; p = 0.0015), R wave < 0.87 mV (AUC = 0.66; Se = 67%; Sp = 69%; p = 0.006), and S wave > 0.37 mV (AUC = 0.80; Se = 72%; Sp = 85%; p < 0.0001) were predictive of severe PS. The extent of right deviation of the mean electrical axis of the QRS complex was correlated with the pulmonary pressure gradient (r = 0.648; p < 0.0001). In conclusion, a systolic murmur with intensity ≥IV/VI, a P wave amplitude >0.35 mV, low amplitude of Q and R waves, deep S waves in lead II, and right axis deviation of the QRS complex in a young dog are predictive of severe PS.

The predictive value of RS time for short term mortality in patients with acute pulmonary embolism

OBJECTIVE

Many studies have examined the capability of electrocardiography (ECG) changes to predict the severity and prognosis of patients with acute pulmonary embolism (APE). RS time in ECG is potentially valuable in evaluating the prognosis of APE. In our study, we aimed to assess the predictive value of RS time, which is a novel electrocardiographic parameter of one-month mortality of APE.

METHODS

This retrospective study included 216 patients who were diagnosed with APE by pulmonary computed tomography angiography. RS time was measured from the ECG (inferolateral leads) at the time of hospital admission using a computer program (imagej.nih.gov/ij/). The patients were divided into two groups according to the median values of RS time: the group with RS time ≤ 60 msec (n:108) and the group with RS time > 60 msec (n:108). The groups were compared in terms of mortality.

RESULTS

In our study, the one-month mortality was 15.3% (33) in the patients hospitalized with APE. In the multivariate analysis, RS time prolongation (HR: 1.037; 95%CI: 1.005-1.065; p = .02) was independently correlated with mortality. The ROC curve analysis revealed that RS time > 64.8 msec predicted the one-month mortality in APE with a sensitivity of 68.6% and a specificity of 73.9% (AUC: 0.708; 95% CI: 0.643-0.768; p < .001).

CONCLUSION

As a novel ECG parameter, RS time could be measured for each patient with APE. Prolongation of RS time could be a useful index for predicting the one-month mortality of patients diagnosed with APE.

Electrocardiographic Findings in Coronavirus Disease-19: Insights on Mortality and Underlying Myocardial Processes

BACKGROUND

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a respiratory syndrome with high rates of mortality, and there is a need for easily obtainable markers to provide prognostic information. We sought to determine whether the electrocardiogram (ECG) on hospital presentation provides prognostic information, specifically related to death.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We performed a retrospective cohort study in patients with COVID-19 who had an ECG at or near hospital admission. Clinical characteristics and ECG variables were manually abstracted from the electronic health record and first ECG. Our primary outcome was death.

THERE WERE

756 patients who presented to a large New York City teaching hospital with COVID-19 who underwent an ECG. The mean age was 63.3 ± 16 years, 37% were women, 61% of patients were nonwhite, and 57% had hypertension; 90 (11.9%) died. In a multivariable logistic regression that included age, ECG, and clinical characteristics, the presence of one or more atrial premature contractions (odds ratio [OR] 2.57, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.23-5.36, P = .01), a right bundle branch block or intraventricular block (OR 2.61, 95% CI 1.32-5.18, P = .002), ischemic T-wave inversion (OR 3.49, 95% CI 1.56-7.80, P = .002), and nonspecific repolarization (OR 2.31, 95% CI 1.27-4.21, P = .006) increased the odds of death. ST elevation was rare (n = 5 [0.7%]).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that patients with ECG findings of both left-sided heart disease (atrial premature contractions, intraventricular block, repolarization abnormalities) and right-sided disease (right bundle branch block) have higher odds of death. ST elevation at presentation was rare.

Prognostic Value of Electrocardiography in Elderly Patients with Acute Pulmonary Embolism

BACKGROUND

Electrocardiographic (ECG) signs of right ventricular strain could be used as a simple tool to risk-stratify patients with acute pulmonary embolism.

METHODS

We studied consecutive patients aged ≥65 years with acute pulmonary embolism in a prospective multicenter cohort study. Two readers independently analyzed 12 predefined ECG signs of right ventricular strain in all patients. The outcome was the occurrence of an adverse clinical event, defined as death from any cause within 90 days or a complicated in-hospital course. We determined the interrater reliability for each ECG sign and examined the association between right ventricular strain signs and adverse events using logistic regression, adjusting for the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index and cardiac troponin.

RESULTS

Overall, 320/390 patients (82%) showed at least one ECG sign of right ventricular strain. The interrater reliability for individual ECG signs was highly variable (ᴋ 0.40-0.95). Patients with ≥1 of the 3 classic signs of right ventricular strain (S1Q3T3, right bundle branch block, or T wave inversions in V1-V4) had a higher incidence of adverse events than those without (13% vs 6%; P = .026). After adjustment, the presence of ≥1 of the 3 classic signs of right ventricular strain (odds ratio 2.11; 95% confidence interval, 1.00-4.46) and the number of right ventricular strain signs present were significantly associated with adverse events (odds ratio 1.35 per sign; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-1.69).

CONCLUSIONS

ECG signs of right ventricular strain are common in elderly patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Although such signs may have prognostic value, their variable reliability and the rather modest prognostic effect size may limit their usefulness in the risk stratification of pulmonary embolism.

Acute Pulmonary Embolism Presenting with Symptomatic Bradycardia: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

BACKGROUND Acute pulmonary embolism (PE) is a common life-threatening cardiovascular emergency. The diagnosis of PE may be challenging, as there can be a wide range of atypical presentations. CASE REPORT A 92-year-old man with asymptomatic first-degree atrioventricular (AV) block, hypertension that was controlled on medication, and a past medical history of deep venous thrombosis (DVT), presented with dizziness, weakness, and collapse while getting dressed. On examination by the attending paramedics, he was noted to have sinus bradycardia at a rate of 18 bpm, which improved to 80 bpm after intravenous injection of atropine. An echocardiogram obtained in the emergency room (ER) showed a markedly dilated right ventricle (RV) with a hypokinetic RV free wall, preserved RV apical contractility, and septal wall motion abnormalities consistent with RV pressure overload. A ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) scan showed a massive PE involving more than 50% of the pulmonary vasculature. Urgent catheter-directed thrombolysis was performed, but the patient's condition deteriorated, and he died shortly afterward. CONCLUSIONS Sinus bradycardia is an unusual initial presentation of PE, but the diagnosis should be considered in patients with multiple risk factors for thromboembolism.

Pulmonary Embolism in Children

Pulmonary embolism is an uncommon but potentially life-threatening event in children. There has been increasing awareness of pulmonary embolism in children with improved survival in children with systemic disease and advancements in diagnostic modalities. However, literature regarding pulmonary embolism in children is sparse, and thus current guidelines for management of pulmonary embolism in children are extrapolated from adult literature and remain controversial. This article reviews the background and pathophysiology of venous thromboembolism, as well as current diagnostic approach and recommended management of pulmonary embolism in children.

Multimodality Assessment of Right Ventricular Strain in Patients With Acute Pulmonary Embolism

Optimal risk stratification is essential in managing patients with an acute pulmonary embolism (PE). There are limited data evaluating the potential additive value of various methods of evaluation of right ventricular (RV) strain in PE. We retrospectively evaluated RV strain by computed tomography (CT), transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), electrocardiography (ECG), and troponin levels in consecutive hospitalized patients with acute PE (May 2007 to December 2014). Four-hundred and seventy-seven patients met inclusion criteria. RV strain on ECG (odds ratio [OR] 1.9, confidence interval [CI] 1.1 to 3.3; p = 0.03), CT (OR 2.7, CI 1.5 to 4.8, p <0.001), TTE (OR 2.8, CI 1.5 to 5.4, p <0.001), or a positive troponin (OR 2.7, CI 2.0 to 6.9, p <0.001) were associated with adverse events. In patients with ECG, CT, and TTE data, increased risk was only elevated with RV strain on all 3 parameters (OR 4.6, CI 1.8 to 11.3, p <0.001). In all patients with troponin measurements, risk was only elevated with RV strain on all 3 parameters plus a positive troponin (OR 8.8, CI 2.8 to 28.1, p <0.001) and was similar in intermediate-risk PE (OR 11.1, CI 1.2 to 103.8, p = 0.04). In conclusion, in patients with an acute PE and evaluation of RV strain by ECG, CT, and TTE, risk of adverse events is only elevated when RV strain is present on all 3 modalities. Troponin further aids in discriminating high-risk patients. Multimodality assessment of RV strain is identified as a superior approach to risk assessment.

The value of electrocardiographic abnormalities in the prognosis of pulmonary embolism: a consensus paper

Electrocardiographic (ECG) abnormalities in the setting of acute pulmonary embolism (PE) are being increasingly characterized and mounting evidence suggests that ECG plays a valuable role in prognostication for PE. We review the historical 21-point ECG prognostic score for the severity of PE and examine the updated evidence surrounding the utility of ECG abnormalities in prognostication for severity of acute PE. We performed a literature search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, and PubMed up to February 2015. Article titles and abstracts were screened, and articles were included if they were observational studies that used a surface 12-lead ECG as the instrument for measurement, a diagnosis of PE was confirmed by imaging, arteriography or autopsy, and analysis of prognostic outcomes was performed. Thirty-six articles met our inclusion criteria. We review the prognostic value of ECG abnormalities included in the 21-point ECG score, including new evidence that has arisen since the time of its publication. We also discuss the potential prognostic value of several ECG abnormalities with newly identified prognostic value in the setting of acute PE.