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Fanjul MS, Cutrera AP, Luna F, Zenuto RR. Individual differences in behaviour are related to metabolism, stress response, testosterone, and immunity in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum. Behav Processes 2023; 212:104945. [PMID: 37775063 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2023.104945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/01/2023]
Abstract
The growth of personality research has led to the integration of consistent variation of individual behaviour in multidimensional approaches including physiological variables, which are required to continue building a more comprehensive theory about coping strategies. In this study, we used wild-caught males of Ctenomys talarum (tuco-tucos), a solitary subterranean rodent, to assess the relationships among personality traits and several physiological variables, namely stress response, testosterone, immunity, and energy metabolism. Subjects (n = 21) were used in experimental tests assessing behaviour, energy metabolism, testosterone levels, inflammatory cell-mediated and humoral immunity, and stress response to a simulated predator attack. The structural equation model explained a moderate portion of the variance of personality behaviours related to activity (52%), boldness (35%), and socioaversion (30%). More active and bold individuals showed higher oxygen consumption. While those subjects had lower baseline cortisol levels, there was no relationship between cortisol levels of the stress-induced response. Cell-mediated immune response was related to activity levels. Finally, testosterone only affected boldness. Despite some of these relationships diverge in direction to predicted ones, overall they support the existence of coping styles in male C. talarum; and are discussed in the light of current hypotheses and particular behavioural and ecological traits of tuco-tucos.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Sol Fanjul
- Grupo "Ecología Fisiológica y del Comportamiento", Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Ana Paula Cutrera
- Grupo "Ecología Fisiológica y del Comportamiento", Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Facundo Luna
- Grupo "Ecología Fisiológica y del Comportamiento", Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Roxana Rita Zenuto
- Grupo "Ecología Fisiológica y del Comportamiento", Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata, Argentina.
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2
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Jablonszky M, Canal D, Hegyi G, Krenhardt K, Laczi M, Markó G, Nagy G, Rosivall B, Szász E, Zsebők S, Garamszegi LZ. Individual differences in song plasticity in response to social stimuli and singing position. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8883. [PMID: 35509613 PMCID: PMC9058795 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Individual animals can react to the changes in their environment by exhibiting behaviors in an individual‐specific way leading to individual differences in phenotypic plasticity. However, the effect of multiple environmental factors on multiple traits is rarely tested. Such a complex approach is necessary to assess the generality of plasticity and to understand how among‐individual differences in the ability to adapt to changing environments evolve. This study examined whether individuals adjust different song traits to varying environmental conditions in the collared flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis), a passerine with complex song. We also aimed to reveal among‐individual differences in behavioral responses by testing whether individual differences in plasticity were repeatable. The presence of general plasticity across traits and/or contexts was also tested. To assess plasticity, we documented (1) short‐scale temporal changes in song traits in different social contexts (after exposition to male stimulus, female stimulus or without stimuli), and (2) changes concerning the height from where the bird sang (singing position), used as a proxy of predation risk and acoustic transmission conditions. We found population‐level relationships between singing position and both song length (SL) and complexity, as well as social context‐dependent temporal changes in SL and maximum frequency (MF). We found among‐individual differences in plasticity of SL and MF along both the temporal and positional gradients. These among‐individual differences in plasticity were repeatable. Some of the plastic responses correlated across different song traits and environmental gradients. Overall, our results show that the plasticity of bird song (1) depends on the social context, (2) exists along different environmental gradients, and (3) there is evidence for trade‐offs between the responses of different traits to different environmental variables. Our results highlight the need to consider individual differences and to investigate multiple traits along multiple environmental axes when studying behavioral plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónika Jablonszky
- Centre for Ecological Research Institute of Ecology and Botany Vácrátót Hungary.,Behavioural Ecology Group Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
| | - David Canal
- Centre for Ecological Research Institute of Ecology and Botany Vácrátót Hungary
| | - Gergely Hegyi
- Behavioural Ecology Group Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
| | - Katalin Krenhardt
- Centre for Ecological Research Institute of Ecology and Botany Vácrátót Hungary.,Behavioural Ecology Group Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
| | - Miklós Laczi
- Behavioural Ecology Group Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary.,The Barn Owl Foundation Orosztony Hungary
| | - Gábor Markó
- Department of Plant Pathology Institute of Plant Protection Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences Budapest Hungary
| | - Gergely Nagy
- Centre for Ecological Research Institute of Ecology and Botany Vácrátót Hungary.,Behavioural Ecology Group Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
| | - Balázs Rosivall
- Behavioural Ecology Group Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
| | - Eszter Szász
- Behavioural Ecology Group Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
| | - Sándor Zsebők
- Centre for Ecological Research Institute of Ecology and Botany Vácrátót Hungary.,Behavioural Ecology Group Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
| | - László Zsolt Garamszegi
- Centre for Ecological Research Institute of Ecology and Botany Vácrátót Hungary.,MTA-ELTE Theoretical Biology and Evolutionary Ecology Research Group Institute of Physics ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
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3
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McMahon EK, Cavigelli SA. Gaps to Address in Ecological Studies of Temperament and Physiology. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:1917-1932. [PMID: 34097030 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecology is a diverse field with many researchers interested in drivers and consequences of variability within populations. Two aspects of variability that have been addressed are behavioral and physiological. While these have been shown to separately influence ecological outcomes such as survival, reproductive success and fitness, combined they could better predict within-population variability in survival and fitness. Recently there has been a focus on potential fitness outcomes of consistent behavioral traits that are referred to as personality or temperament (e.g. boldness, sociability, exploration, etc.). Given this recent focus, it is an optimal time to identify areas to supplement in this field, particularly in determining the relationship between temperament and physiological traits. To maximize progress, in this perspective paper we propose that the following two areas be addressed: (1) increased diversity of species, and (2) increased number of physiological processes studied, with an eye toward using more representative and relatively consistent measures across studies. We first highlight information that has been gleaned from species that are frequently studied to determine how animal personality relates to physiology and/or survival/fitness. We then shine a spotlight on important taxa that have been understudied and that can contribute meaningful, complementary information to this area of research. And last, we propose a brief array of physiological processes to relate to temperament, and that can significantly impact fitness, and that may be accessible in field studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elyse K McMahon
- Ecology Graduate Program, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.,Center for Brain, Behavior, and Cognition, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.,Department of Biobehavioral Health, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Sonia A Cavigelli
- Center for Brain, Behavior, and Cognition, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.,Department of Biobehavioral Health, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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4
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Physiological Stress Integrates Resistance to Rattlesnake Venom and the Onset of Risky Foraging in California Ground Squirrels. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100617. [PMID: 32992585 PMCID: PMC7601495 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Using venom for predation often leads to the evolution of resistance in prey. Understanding individual variation in venom resistance is key to unlocking basic mechanisms by which antagonistic coevolution can sustain variation in traits under selection. For prey, the opposing challenges of predator avoidance and resource acquisition often lead to correlated levels of risk and reward, which in turn can favor suites of integrated morphological, physiological and behavioral traits. We investigate the relationship between risk-sensitive behaviors, physiological resistance to rattlesnake venom, and stress in a population of California ground squirrels. For the same individuals, we quantified foraging decisions in the presence of snake predators, fecal corticosterone metabolites (a measure of “stress”), and blood serum inhibition of venom enzymatic activity (a measure of venom resistance). Individual responses to snakes were repeatable for three measures of risk-sensitive behavior, indicating that some individuals were consistently risk-averse whereas others were risk tolerant. Venom resistance was lower in squirrels with higher glucocorticoid levels and poorer body condition. Whereas resistance failed to predict proximity to and interactions with snake predators, individuals with higher glucocorticoid levels and in lower body condition waited the longest to feed when near a snake. We compared alternative structural equation models to evaluate alternative hypotheses for the relationships among stress, venom resistance, and behavior. We found support for stress as a shared physiological correlate that independently lowers venom resistance and leads to squirrels that wait longer to feed in the presence of a snake, whereas we did not find evidence that resistance directly facilitates latency to forage. Our findings suggest that stress may help less-resistant squirrels avoid a deadly snakebite, but also reduces feeding opportunities. The combined lethal and non-lethal effects of stressors in predator–prey interactions simultaneously impact multiple key traits in this system, making environmental stress a potential contributor to geographic variation in trait expression of toxic predators and resistant prey.
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5
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Schreier KC, Grindstaff JL. Repeatable behavioural and immune defence strategies against infection are not traded off. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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6
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Feldman M, Ferrandiz-Rovira M, Espelta JM, Muñoz A. Evidence of high individual variability in seed management by scatter-hoarding rodents: does ‘personality’ matter? Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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7
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Ducatez S, Audet JN, Lefebvre L. Speed–accuracy trade-off, detour reaching and response to PHA in Carib grackles. Anim Cogn 2019; 22:625-633. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01258-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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8
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Przybylska AS, Wojciechowski MS, Jefimow M. Physiological differences between winter phenotypes of Siberian hamsters do not correlate with their behaviour. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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9
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Seasonal effects on behavior and immunity in a precocial rodent. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2513-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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10
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Montiglio PO, Dammhahn M, Dubuc Messier G, Réale D. The pace-of-life syndrome revisited: the role of ecological conditions and natural history on the slow-fast continuum. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2526-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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11
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Moyers SC, Adelman JS, Farine DR, Moore IT, Hawley DM. Exploratory behavior is linked to stress physiology and social network centrality in free-living house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus). Horm Behav 2018; 102:105-113. [PMID: 29758182 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Animal personality has been linked to individual variation in both stress physiology and social behaviors, but few studies have simultaneously examined covariation between personality traits, stress hormone levels, and behaviors in free-living animals. We investigated relationships between exploratory behavior (one aspect of animal personality), stress physiology, and social and foraging behaviors in wild house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus). We conducted novel environment assays after collecting samples of baseline and stress-induced plasma corticosterone concentrations from a subset of house finches. We then fitted individuals with Passive Integrated Transponder tags and monitored feeder use and social interactions at radio-frequency identification equipped bird feeders. First, we found that individuals with higher baseline corticosterone concentrations exhibit more exploratory behaviors in a novel environment. Second, more exploratory individuals interacted with more unique conspecifics in the wild, though this result was stronger for female than for male house finches. Third, individuals that were quick to begin exploring interacted more frequently with conspecifics than slow-exploring individuals. Finally, exploratory behaviors were unrelated to foraging behaviors, including the amount of time spent on bird feeders, a behavior previously shown to be predictive of acquiring a bacterial disease that causes annual epidemics in house finches. Overall, our results indicate that individual differences in exploratory behavior are linked to variation in both stress physiology and social network traits in free-living house finches. Such covariation has important implications for house finch ecology, as both traits can contribute to fitness in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahnzi C Moyers
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, United States.
| | - James S Adelman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, United States
| | - Damien R Farine
- Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK
| | - Ignacio T Moore
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, United States
| | - Dana M Hawley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0406, United States
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12
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Fisher DN, David M, Rodríguez-Muñoz R, Tregenza T. Lifespan and age, but not residual reproductive value or condition, are related to behaviour in wild field crickets. Ethology 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David N. Fisher
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation; University of Exeter; Cornwall UK
- Department for Integrative Biology; University of Guelph; Guelph ON Canada
| | - Morgan David
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation; University of Exeter; Cornwall UK
- Department of Biology-Ethology; Drie Eiken Campus; University of Antwerp; Wilrijk (Antwerpen) Belgium
- Drylaw House Gardens; Edinburgh UK
| | | | - Tom Tregenza
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation; University of Exeter; Cornwall UK
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13
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Schell CJ, Young JK, Lonsdorf EV, Mateo JM, Santymire RM. It takes two: Evidence for reduced sexual conflict over parental care in a biparental canid. J Mammal 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyx150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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14
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Hertler SC. Beyond birth order: The biological logic of personality variation among siblings. COGENT PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/23311908.2017.1325570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Steven C. Hertler
- Department of Psychology, College of New Rochelle, New Rochelle, NY 10805, USA
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15
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16
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Schell CJ, Young JK, Lonsdorf EV, Mateo JM, Santymire RM. Olfactory attractants and parity affect prenatal androgens and territoriality of coyote breeding pairs. Physiol Behav 2016; 165:43-54. [PMID: 27378509 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Hormones are fundamental mediators of personality traits intimately linked with reproductive success. Hence, alterations to endocrine factors may dramatically affect individual behavior that has subsequent fitness consequences. Yet it is unclear how hormonal or behavioral traits change with environmental stressors or over multiple reproductive opportunities, particularly for biparental fauna. To simulate an environmental stressor, we exposed captive coyote (Canis latrans) pairs to novel coyote odor attractants (i.e. commercial scent lures) mid-gestation to influence territorial behaviors, fecal glucocorticoid (FGMs) and fecal androgen metabolites (FAMs). In addition, we observed coyote pairs as first-time and experienced breeders to assess the influence of parity on our measures. Treatment pairs received the odors four times over a 20-day period, while control pairs received water. Odor-treated pairs scent-marked (e.g. urinated, ground scratched) and investigated odors more frequently than control pairs, and had higher FAMs when odors were provided. Pairs had higher FAMs as first-time versus experienced breeders, indicating that parity also affected androgen production during gestation. Moreover, repeatability in scent-marking behaviors corresponded with FGMs and FAMs, implying that coyote territoriality during gestation is underpinned by individually-specific hormone profiles. Our results suggest coyote androgens during gestation are sensitive to conspecific olfactory stimuli and prior breeding experience. Consequently, fluctuations in social or other environmental stimuli as well as increasing parity may acutely affect coyote traits essential to reproductive success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Schell
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, 1025 E. 57th Street, Culver Hall 402, Chicago, IL 60637, United States.
| | - Julie K Young
- USDA-WS-NWRC, Predator Research Facility, Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, USU - BNR 163, Logan, UT 84322, United States
| | - Elizabeth V Lonsdorf
- Department of Psychology, Franklin and Marshall College, P.O. Box 3003, Lancaster, PA 17603, United States
| | - Jill M Mateo
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, 1025 E. 57th Street, Culver Hall 402, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Rachel M Santymire
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, 1025 E. 57th Street, Culver Hall 402, Chicago, IL 60637, United States; Department of Conservation and Science, Lincoln Park Zoo, 2001 N. Clark St., Chicago, IL 60614, United States
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17
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Dantzer B, Westrick SE, van Kesteren F. Relationships between Endocrine Traits and Life Histories in Wild Animals: Insights, Problems, and Potential Pitfalls. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:185-97. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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18
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Distribution and Abundance of Glucocorticoid and Mineralocorticoid Receptors throughout the Brain of the Great Tit (Parus major). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148516. [PMID: 26867218 PMCID: PMC4750984 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The glucocorticoid stress response, regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, enables individuals to cope with stressors through transcriptional effects in cells expressing the appropriate receptors. The two receptors that bind glucocorticoids—the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR)—are present in a variety of vertebrate tissues, but their expression in the brain is especially important. Neural receptor patterns have the potential to integrate multiple behavioral and physiological traits simultaneously, including self-regulation of glucocorticoid secretion through negative feedback processes. In the present work, we quantified the expression of GR and MR mRNA throughout the brain of a female great tit (Parus major), creating a distribution map encompassing 48 regions. This map, the first of its kind for P. major, demonstrated a widespread but not ubiquitous distribution of both receptor types. In the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) and the hippocampus (HP)—the two brain regions that we sampled from a total of 25 birds, we found high GR mRNA expression in the former and, unexpectedly, low MR mRNA in the latter. We examined the covariation of MR and GR levels in these two regions and found a strong, positive relationship between MR in the PVN and MR in the HP and a similar trend for GR across these two regions. This correlation supports the idea that hormone pleiotropy may constrain an individual’s behavioral and physiological phenotype. In the female song system, we found moderate GR in hyperstriatum ventrale, pars caudalis (HVC), and moderate MR in robust nucleus of the arcopallium (RA). Understanding intra- and interspecific patterns of glucocorticoid receptor expression can inform us about the behavioral processes (e.g. song learning) that may be sensitive to stress and stimulate future hypotheses concerning the relationships between receptor expression, circulating hormone concentrations and performance traits under selection, including behavior.
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Crossin GT, Love OP, Cooke SJ, Williams TD. Glucocorticoid manipulations in free‐living animals: considerations of dose delivery, life‐history context and reproductive state. Funct Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Glenn T. Crossin
- Biology Department Dalhousie University Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
| | - Oliver P. Love
- Biology Department University of Windsor Windsor Ontario Canada
| | - Steven J. Cooke
- Fish Ecology & Conservation Physiology Laboratory Institute of Environmental Science and Department of Biology Carleton University Ottawa Ontario Canada
| | - Tony D. Williams
- Department of Biological Sciences Simon Fraser University Burnaby British Columbia Canada
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