The effect of extrusion cooking of different starch sources on the in vitro and in vivo digestibility in growing pigs

Early-life ruminal microbiome-derived indole-3-carboxaldehyde and prostaglandin D2 are effective promoters of rumen development

BACKGROUND

The function of diverse ruminal microbes is tightly linked to rumen development and host physiology. The system of ruminal microbes is an excellent model to clarify the fundamental ecological relationships among complex nutrient-microbiome-host interactions. Here, neonatal lambs are introduced to different dietary regimes to investigate the influences of early-life crosstalk between nutrients and microbiome on rumen development.

RESULTS

We find starchy corn-soybean starter-fed lambs exhibit the thickest ruminal epithelia and fiber-rich alfalfa hay-fed lambs have the thickest rumen muscle. Metabolome and metagenome data reveal that indole-3-carboxaldehyde (3-IAld) and prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) are the top characteristic ruminal metabolites associated with ruminal epithelial and muscular development, which depend on the enhanced ruminal microbial synthesis potential of 3-IAld and PGD2. Moreover, microbial culture experiment first demonstrates that Bifidobacterium pseudolongum is able to convert tryptophan into 3-IAld and Candida albicans is a key producer for PGD2. Transcriptome sequencing of the ruminal epithelia and smooth muscle shows that ruminal epithelial and muscular development is accompanied by Wnt and Ca2+ signaling pathway activation. Primary cell cultures further confirm that 3-IAld promotes ruminal epithelial cell proliferation depending on AhR-wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway and PGD2 accelerates ruminal smooth muscle cell proliferation via Ca2+ signaling pathway. Furthermore, we find that 3-IAld and PGD2 infusion promote ruminal epithelial and musculature development in lambs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that early-life ruminal microbiome-derived 3-IAld and PGD2 are effective promoters of rumen development, which enhances our understanding of nutrient-microbiome-host interactions in early life.

Effect of extrusion on energy and nutrient digestibility of lentil-based diets containing either supplemental plant or animal protein fed to growing pigs

Non-food grade and excess lentil grain production may be included in swine feeds to provide starch and protein and reduce feed cost. Extrusion processing may increase energy and nutrient digestibility of lentil-based diets containing either supplemental plant or animal protein sources. Therefore, the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA), apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE), and digestible energy (DE) value of lentil-based diets were assessed in growing pigs. Two diets were formulated to provide 2.4 Mcal net energy (NE)/kg and 4.35 g standardized ileal digestible lysine/Mcal NE: (1) soybean meal (SBM) diet, containing 50% lentil, 31% wheat, and 12.8% SBM; and (2) fish meal (FM) diet, containing 40% lentil, 45% wheat, and 10% FM. Following mixing, each diet batch was divided into two parts: one part remained as mash, whereas the other part was extruded using a single-screw extruder (400 rpm, 250 kg/h). Eight ileal-cannulated barrows (32.3 ± 1.5 kg) were fed the four diets at 2.8 times maintenance DE requirement (110 kcal per kg of body weight0.75) for four 9-d periods in a double 4 × 4 Latin square to achieve 8 observations per diet. Data were analyzed as a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement including protein source, post-mixing processing, and their interaction as fixed effects. The lentil sample contained 32.3% starch, 24.4% CP, 9.3% total dietary fiber, and 1.7 mg/g of trypsin inhibitor activity on as is-basis. Interactions between dietary protein source and post-mixing processing were not observed. Feeding FM diets resulted in greater (P < 0.05) AID of dry matter (DM), GE, and most AA, and ATTD of CP, but lower apparent hindgut fermentation of DM and GE than SBM diets. Extrusion increased (P < 0.05) the ATTD of GE and DE value of diets. The AID of CP and AA was 3.2 and 4.7%-units greater (P < 0.05), respectively, for the extruded than mash diets. In conclusion, feeding FM diets resulted in greater ileal digestibility of DM, GE, and AA than SBM diets. Extrusion increased the AID of CP and most AA, and DE value of lentil-based diets containing either supplemental plant protein or animal-protein, indicating that extrusion can increase the energy and protein value of plant-based diets fed to pigs.

Reduction of particle size of field peas (Pisum sativum L.) increases net energy and digestibility of starch when fed to growing pigs, but there is no difference in nutritional value between peas from the United States and peas from Canada

Two experiments were conducted to test the hypotheses that particle size of field peas and location where peas are grown do not affect apparent total tract digestibility of nutrients and gross energy, digestible energy (DE), metabolizable energy (ME), and net energy (NE), apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch, or standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA). In both experiments, 3 sources of field peas were used. One source was obtained from the United States and 2 sources were obtained from Canada (i.e., Canada 1 and Canada 2). The U.S. field peas were ground to 678, 457, or 265 µm, whereas the 2 sources of Canadian peas were ground to 411 and 415 µm, respectively. Therefore, 5 batches of field peas were used in both experiments. A basal diet contained corn and soybean meal as the only source of energy, starch, and AA, and 5 diets containing corn and soybean meal and 50% of each source of field peas were also formulated. The ratio between corn and soybean meal was 1.92:1 in all diets. In experiment 1, an N-free diet was also used to calculate basal endogenous losses of AA and CP, but in experiment 2, no N-free diet was used. In experiment 1, 7 barrows (initial body weight = 60.6 ± 2.1 kg) that had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum were allotted to a 7 × 7 Latin square design with 7 diets and 7 periods. In experiment 2, 24 pigs (initial body weight = 30.8 ± 1.0 kg) were housed in 6 calorimeter chambers with 4 pigs per chamber. The 6 chambers were allotted to one of the 6 diets using a 6 × 6 Latin square design with 6 consecutive periods of 15 d. Results of experiment 1 demonstrated that the SID of CP and AA was not influenced by the origin of the peas or by the particle size, but the AID of starch increased (linear, P < 0.001) as particle size was reduced from 678 to 457 or 265 µm. Results of experiment 2 indicated that growing location did not affect concentrations of DE, ME, or NE of field peas, but concentrations of DE, ME, and NE increased (linear, P < 0.05) when particle size was reduced from 678 to 457 or 265 µm. In conclusion, field peas grown in Canada or the United States have the same nutritional value, but starch digestibility and NE increase if the particle size of field peas is reduced.

Nutritional contributions and processability of pasta made from climate-smart, sustainable crops: A critical review

Total or partial replacement of traditional durum wheat semolina (DWS) by alternative flours, such as legumes or wholegrain cereals in pasta improves their nutritional quality and can make them interesting vector for fortification. Climate-smart gluten-free (C-GF) flours, such as legumes (bambara groundnut, chickpea, cowpea, faba bean, and pigeon pea), some cereals (amaranth, teff, millet, and sorghum), and tubers (cassava and orange fleshed sweet potato), are of high interest to face ecological transition and develop sustainable food systems. In this review, an overview and a critical analysis of their nutritional potential for pasta production and processing conditions are undertaken. Special emphasis is given to understanding the influence of formulation and processing on techno-functional and nutritional (starch and protein digestibility) properties. Globally C-GF flours improve pasta protein quantity and quality, fibers, and micronutrients contents while keeping a low glycemic index and increasing protein digestibility. However, their use introduces anti-nutritional factors and could lead to the alteration of their techno-functional properties (higher cooking losses, lower firmness, and variability in color in comparison to classical DWS pasta). Nevertheless, these alternative pasta remain more interesting in terms of nutritional and techno-functional quality than traditional maize and rice-based gluten free pasta.

Effects of Processing Methods and Conditioning Temperatures on the Cassava Starch Digestibility and Growth Performance of Broilers

As an important food crop, cassava is rich in nutrients and high in starch content and is widely used in the production of industrial raw materials. However, the utilization value of cassava is limited due to the reduction of planting area and the existence of anti-nutritional factors. Therefore, we evaluated in vitro cassava starch digestibility and in vivo growth performance of broilers in a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement of treatments using three processing methods (mechanical crushing (MC), steam conditioning (SC), and puffing conditioning (PU)) and three conditioning temperatures (60, 75, and 90 °C) to screen for the optimal processing method and conditioning temperature to improve the utilization of cassava. In the in vitro cassava starch digestion study, the digestibility and digestion rate (p < 0.01) were higher at conditioned 90 °C than that at 60 or 75 °C, and PU was higher than SC and MC (p < 0.01) (0.25-2 h). The amylose content and amylose/amylopectin at conditioned 60 °C or PU were lower (p < 0.01) than that of 75 or 90 °C or SC, whereas the opposite was true for amylopectin content (p < 0.01). The resistant starch content of SC or PU was lower (p < 0.01) than MC. In the in vivo study, broilers fed diets conditioned at 60 °C or SC had a lower (p < 0.05) feed-to-gain ratio than those fed diets conditioned at 90 °C or PU diets. The ileum apparent digestibility of starch and AME were higher (p < 0.05) for broilers fed SC diets than for those fed MC diets. These results indicate that cassava starch promoted starch digestion rate by reducing amylose content and amylose/amylose under PU combined with a conditioning temperature of 60 °C, ileum digestibility of starch in broilers fed SC diets was higher than MC diets regardless of conditioning temperature, and SC diets increased AME and decreased F/G to promote growth performance of broilers.

Effect of Fiber Fermentation and Protein Digestion Kinetics on Mineral Digestion in Pigs

Nutrient kinetic data and the timing of nutrient release along the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), are not yet widely used in current feed formulations for pigs and poultry. The present review focuses on interactions between fermentable substrates (e.g., starch, fiber, and protein) and selected minerals on nutrient digestion and absorption to determine nutritional solutions to maximize animal performance, principally in the grower-finisher phase, with the aim of minimizing environmental pollution. For phosphorus (P), myo-inositol 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexakis (dihydrogen phosphate) (InsP6), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn), no standardized methodologies to assess in vitro mineral digestion exist. The stepwise degradation of InsP6 to lower inositol phosphate (InsP) forms in the GIT is rare, and inositol phosphate4 (InsP4) might be the limiting isomer of InsP degradation in diets with exogenous phytase. Furthermore, dietary coefficients of standardized total tract digestibility (CSTTD) of P might be underestimated in diets with fermentable ingredients because of increased diet-specific endogenous P losses (EPL), and further clarification is required to better calculate the coefficients of true total tract digestibility (CTTTD) of P. The quantification of fiber type, composition of fiber fractions, their influence on digestion kinetics, effects on digesta pH, and nutrient solubility related to fermentation should be considered for formulating diets. In conclusion, applications of nutrient kinetic data should be considered to help enhance nutrient digestion and absorption in the GIT, thereby reducing nutrient excretion.

The cost of cooking for foragers

Cooked food provides more calories to a consumer than raw food. When our human ancestors adopted cooking, the result was an increase in the caloric value of the diet. Generating the heat to cook, however, requires fuel, and accessing fuel was and remains a common problem for humanity. Cooking also frequently requires monitoring, special technology and other investments. These cooking costs should vary greatly across multiple contexts. Here I explain how to quantify this cooking trade-off as the ratio of the energetic benefits of cooking to the increased cost in handling time and examine the implications for foragers, including the first of our ancestors to cook. Ethnographic and experimental return rates and nutritional analysis about important prey items exploited by ethnohistoric Numic foragers in the North American Great Basin provide a demonstration of how the costs of cooking impact different types of prey. Foragers should make choices about which prey to capture based on expectations about the costs involved to cook them. The results indicate that the caloric benefit achieved by cooking meat is quickly lost as the cost of cooking increases, whereas many plant foods are beneficially cooked across a range of cooking costs. These findings affirm the importance of plant foods, especially geophytes, among foragers, and are highly suggestive of their importance at the onset of cooking in the human lineage.

Resistant starch: Implications of dietary inclusion on gut health and growth in pigs: a review

Starch from cereal grains, pulse grains, and tubers is a major energy substrate in swine rations constituting up to 55% of the diet. In pigs, starch digestion is initiated by salivary and then pancreatic α-amylase, and has as final step the digestion of disaccharides by the brush-border enzymes in the small intestine that produce monosaccharides (glucose) for absorption. Resistant starch (RS) is the proportion of starch that escapes the enzymatic digestion and absorption in the small intestine. The undigested starch reaches the distal small intestine and hindgut for microbial fermentation, which produces short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) for absorption. SCFA in turn, influence microbial ecology and gut health of pigs. These fermentative metabolites exert their benefits on gut health through promoting growth and proliferation of enterocytes, maintenance of intestinal integrity and thus immunity, and modulation of the microbial community in part by suppressing the growth of pathogenic bacteria while selectively enhancing beneficial microbes. Thus, RS has the potential to confer prebiotic effects and may contribute to the improvement of intestinal health in pigs during the post-weaning period. Despite these benefits to the well-being of pigs, RS has a contradictory effect due to lower energetic efficiency of fermented vs. digested starch absorption products. The varying amount and type of RS interact differently with the digestion process along the gastrointestinal tract affecting its energy efficiency and host physiological responses including feed intake, energy metabolism, and feed efficiency. Results of research indicate that the use of RS as prebiotic may improve gut health and thereby, reduce the incidence of post-weaning diarrhea (PWD) and associated mortality. This review summarizes our current knowledge on the effects of RS on microbial ecology, gut health and growth performance in pigs.

Hindgut fermentation of starch is greater for pulse grains than cereal grains in growing pigs

The nutritive value of starch, the major source of dietary energy in pigs, varies depending on its susceptibility for digestion. The botanical origin of starch determines starch structure, and therefore, digestibility. To compare digestibility of starch, fiber, gross energy (GE), crude protein, and amino acid (AA), and to characterize undigested starch of grains in growing pigs, seven ileal-cannulated barrows (initial body weight, 30 kg) were fed six diets containing 96% of one of six test ingredients (three pulse grains: zero-tannin faba bean, green field pea, or mixed-cultivar chickpea; three cereal grains: hulled barley, hard red spring wheat, or hybrid yellow, dent corn), or a N-free diet in a 7 × 7 Latin square at 2.8 × maintenance digestible energy. Grain samples were ground with a hammer mill through a 2.78-mm screen. Amylose content ranged from 29% to 34% for pulse grains and from 22% to 25% for cereal grains. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch was greater (P < 0.05) in cereal (94% to 97%) than pulse grains (85% to 90%) and was lowest (P < 0.05) in faba bean (85.3%) followed by field pea (87.2%) and chickpea (90.1%). However, apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of starch of all tested grains was close to 100%. Apparent hindgut fermentability (AHF, as ATTD - AID) of starch was greater (P < 0.05) in pulse grains (9.9% to 15%) than cereal grains (3.3% to 4.8%). The AHF of total dietary fiber tended to be the greatest (P < 0.10) for corn (43.5%) and lowest for wheat (25.3%). The AHF of GE was greater (P < 0.05) in pulse grains (17% to 20%) than in cereal grains (9% to 11%) and resulted in greater (P < 0.05) digestible energy (DE) contribution from hindgut fermentation for pulse grains than cereal grains (0.9 vs. 0.5 Mcal/kg). Wheat had the greatest standardized ileal digestibility of total AA (90.2%; P < 0.05). Confocal laser scanning microscopy images revealed that 20% to 30% of starch granules of pulse grains were entrapped in protein matrixes. In scanning electron microscopy images, starch granules were larger in faba bean and field pea than cereal grains. Digesta samples revealed pin holes and surface cracks in starch granules of corn and wheat, respectively. In conclusion, hindgut fermentation of starch and fiber was greater in pulse grains than cereal grains resulting in a greater DE value despite lower ileal DE for pulse grain than cereal grains. Defining the digestible and fermentable fractions of starch may enhance the accuracy of equations to predict the net energy value of these feedstuffs.

A current review of structure, functional properties, and industrial applications of pulse starches for value-added utilization

Pulse crops have received growing attention from the agri-food sector because they can provide advantageous health benefits and offer a promising source of starch and protein. Pea, lentil, and faba bean are the three leading pulse crops utilized for extracting protein concentrate/isolate in food industry, which simultaneously generates a rising volume of pulse starch as a co-product. Pulse starch can be fractionated from seeds using dry and wet methods. Compared with most commercial starches, pea, lentil, and faba bean starches have relatively high amylose contents, longer amylopectin branch chains, and characteristic C-type polymorphic arrangement in the granules. The described molecular and granular structures of the pulse starches impart unique functional attributes, including high final viscosity during pasting, strong gelling property, and relatively low digestibility in a granular form. Starch isolated from wrinkled pea-a high-amylose mutant of this pulse crop-possesses an even higher amylose content and longer branch chains of amylopectin than smooth pea, lentil, and faba bean starches, which make the physicochemical properties and digestibility of the former distinctively different from those of common pulse starches. The special functional properties of pulse starches promote their applications in food, feed, bioplastic and other industrial products, which can be further expanded by modifying them through chemical, physical and/or enzymatic approaches. Future research directions to increase the fractionation efficiency, improve the physicochemical properties, and enhance the industrial utilization of pulse starches have also been proposed. The comprehensive information covered in this review will be beneficial for the pulse industry to develop effective strategies to generate value from pulse starch.

Interactions between starch source and gelatinisation degree on performance and small intestinal digestion in broiler chickens

1. A 2 × 2 factorial arrangement was used to test the hypothesis that, in pelleted diets, legume starch is digested less rapidly and to a lesser extent than cereal starch, and that increased gelatinisation through extrusion would eliminate the differences between the starch sources. In addition, the trial examined whether a lower ratio of starch to nitrogen disappearance rate (SNDR) could improve feed conversion ratio (FCR).2. At 17 d of age, male broilers were randomly distributed among four dietary treatments, consisting of either wheat or faba bean starch-rich fraction (FBS) as the sole starch source and pelleting or extrusion as processing methods. Each treatment had 10 replicate pens containing five birds each.3. Extrusion resulted in a more extensive starch gelatinisation compared to pelleting, as expected.4. No difference in weight gain at 29 d of age was observed between birds fed starch sources. However, birds fed wheat tended (P = 0.080) to have better FCR than those fed FBS, while the effect of processing methods was insignificant. Thus, there was no interaction between starch source and processing method on FCR.5. In pelleted diets, FBS had lower and slower starch digestibility compared to wheat in all intestinal segments (P < 0.05). The interaction between starch source and processing method in all intestinal segments (P < 0.001) demonstrated that FBS responded more to gelatinisation through extrusion than did wheat. Thus, differences in starch digestibility between the wheat and FBS were eliminated with extrusion.6. Feeding extruded diets significantly increased the upper jejunal expression of GLUT1, GLUT2 and SGLT1 compared to pelleted diets, which suggested that glucose absorption was less likely to be a limiting factor for starch utilisation.7. Pelleting resulted in a lower ratio (P < 0.001) of SNDR compared to extrusion (on average 1.4-fold) but did not improve FCR.

Intrauterine growth restriction alters nutrient metabolism in the intestine of porcine offspring

Background

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) has negative impacts on the postnatal survival, growth and development of humans and animals, with not only on newborns but also adulthood. However, the characteristics for nutrient digestion and absorption in IUGR offspring are still largely unknown. Therefore, the normal birth weight (NBW) and IUGR growing pigs were used in this study to investigate their differences in nutrient utilization, with an expectition for further nutritional optimization of the IUGR offspring during their later life.

Methods

Twelve IUGR and 12 NBW growing pigs were fitted with catheters in their portal vein to measure blood flow rate as well as nutrients and metabolites in plasma. The digestibilities of nutrients in different intestinal segments, and bacterial fermentation in the large intestine were examined to reveal the characteristics of nutrients utilization in IUGR versus NBW pigs.

Results

The rate of portal venous blood flow did not differ beween IUGR and NBW pigs. Plasma concentrations of total cholesterol, triglycerides and glucose were much lower but those of urea were higher in the portal vein of IUGR pigs, compared with the NBW pigs. The ileal digestibility of dry matter, gross energy and starch were lower in IUGR pigs than in NBW pigs. IUGR increased hindgut microbial diversity and bacterial fermentation activity in the caecum. In vitro cross-fermentation of ileal digesta by caecal microbes of NBW and IUGR pigs showed that gas production was much higher for IUGR ileal digesta regardless of the source of caecal inocula.

Conclusion

IUGR impairs the nutrient digestion and absorption in small intestine, reduces caecal microbial diversity and promotes bacterial fermentation in the large intestine during the growing phase. These findings aid in our understanding of nutrient metabolism in IUGR pigs and provide the basis for future nutritional interventions.

Extrusion of soybean hulls does not increase digestibility of amino acids or concentrations of digestible and metabolizable energy when fed to growing pigs

Two experiments were conducted to determine effects of extrusion on energy and nutrient digestibility in soybean hulls. One source of soybean hulls was ground and divided into two batches. One batch was used without further processing, whereas the other batch was extruded. In Exp. 1, four diets were formulated to determine crude protein (CP) and amino acid (AA) digestibility in soybean hulls. A soybean meal-based diet in which soybean meal provided all the CP and AA was formulated. Two diets were formulated to contain 30% nonextruded or extruded soybean hulls and 18% soybean meal. An N-free diet that was used to determine the endogenous losses of CP and AA was also used. Eight growing barrows (initial body weight = 37.0 ± 3.9 kg) had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum and were allotted to a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design. Each experimental period lasted 7 d with the initial 5 d being the adaptation period and ileal digesta were collected for 8 h on day 6 and 7. Results indicated that extrusion of soybean hulls did not change the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of CP and most AA with the exception that the SID of Ile and Leu tended (P < 0.10) to be greater in extruded than nonextruded soybean hulls. In Exp. 2, three diets were formulated to determine energy digestibility in soybean hulls. One corn-soybean meal based basal diet, and two diets that contained corn, soybean meal, and 32% extruded or nonextruded soybean hulls were formulated. Twenty-four growing barrows (initial body weight = 59.9 ± 3.4 kg) were allotted to a randomized complete block design. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates and feces and urine were collected separately for 4 d after 5 d of adaptation. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE) and the digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) were reduced (P < 0.05) in diets containing nonextruded or extruded soybean hulls compared with the basal diet. However, the ATTD of GE and values for DE and ME in soybean hulls were not improved by extrusion. Likewise, extrusion did not change the concentration of total dietary fiber in soybean hulls. In conclusion, there were no effects of extrusion of soybean hulls on SID of AA, energy digestibility, or ME concentration in soybean hulls.

Influence of extrusion cooking on physicochemical properties and starch digestion kinetics of Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan, and Vigna subterranean grains

Thermal degradation of sugars and amino acids, and depolymerization of macromolecules such as starch, proteins and fibre occasioned by high-temperature short-time extrusion cooking modify the physicochemical and functional properties of raw materials. High-temperature short-time extrusion cooking holds promise for the expanded use of non-conventional ingredients as food/feed due to its practicality, increased productivity and efficiency, and ability to retain thermally degradable nutrients during cooking. However, little is known about the effect of the high-temperature short-time extrusion cooking process on the physicochemical properties and starch digestibility of lesser-known grain legumes such as African yam beans (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), and Bambara peanut (Vigna subterranean). In this study, we investigate the effect of high-temperature short-time extrusion cooking and extrusion cooking temperature; low (100°C) vs high (140°C) temperatures in a single screw extruder, on hydration characteristics, viscoamylolytic properties, in vitro starch digestibility and digestion kinetics of these grain legumes. We show that water holding capacity and swelling power increased (p < 0.05) with increasing extrusion temperature for Sphenostylis stenocarpa and Vigna subterranean but not Cajanus cajan extrudates. Significant effects of extrusion cooking (i.e unextruded vs 100°C and unextruded vs 140°C) and extrusion temperatures (i.e. 100°C vs 140°C) were observed in peak, trough, final and setback viscosities of all extrudates. Starch digestibility and digestion characteristics were modified with increase in extrusion temperature, however, no effect of extrusion temperatures (i.e. 100°C vs 140°C) on starch digestion kinetics was observed for Sphenostylis stenocarpa and Vigna subterranean except for hydrolysis index (34.77 vs 40.77%). Nutritional and physiological implications of extruded grain legumes in monogastric animal feeding were also highlighted. The Information presented herein will influence expanded use of extruded grain legumes as feed ingredients for intensive monogastric animal feeding.

Effect of high-temperature, short-time cooking conditions on in vitro protein digestibility, enzyme inhibitor activity and amino acid profile of selected legume grains

African yam beans (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean) and Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) flours were extruded in a single screw extruder at two extrusion temperatures; 100 °C and 140 °C, and the effect of extrusion cooking temperature on the chemical composition; crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract and nitrogen-free extracts, protein digestibility, enzyme inhibitor activity and amino acid profiles was investigated. The crude protein, amino acid profile and ether extract of the grain legumes were negatively affected (p < 0.05) by the extrusion cooking process, with a significant increase in nitrogen-free extracts for all grain legumes, and increased crude fibre of Bambara groundnut and Pigeon pea extrudates. Extrusion cooking of African yam beans and Pigeon pea produced extrudates with significantly lower trypsin, chymotrypsin and amylase inhibitor activity as well as improved protein digestibility. However, extrusion cooking did not modify the chymotrypsin and amylase inhibitor activity of Bambara groundnut extrudates. Extrusion cooking at 140 °C compared to 100 °C significantly reduced the protein quality of extrudates resulting in 22.94-51.27%, 5.11-25.18%, and 7.78-38.42% reduction in amino acid concentration of African yam beans, Bambara groundnut and Pigeon pea, respectively.

Feed intake patterns nor growth rates of pigs are affected by dietary resistant starch, despite marked differences in digestion

Current feed evaluation systems often assume that fermented starch (i.e. resistant starch (RS)) yields less energy than digested starch. However, growth rates of pigs fed low and high RS diets are often the same when feed is available ad libitum. This may be explained by its effect on digestive processes changing feeding behavior, and consequently energy utilization. This study aims to investigate the effect of RS on nutrient digestion and digesta passage rate in pigs, in combination with its effect on feeding behavior and growth performance under ad libitum conditions. In experiment 1, 20 male pigs (40 ± 2.82 kg) were fed diets containing either 50% waxy maize starch (low in RS (LRS)) or high-amylose maize starch (high in RS (HRS)), and soluble and insoluble indigestible markers. After 14 days of adaptation to the diets, pigs were fed hourly to reach steady state (6 h), dissected, and digesta were collected from eight segments. From the collected samples, nutrient digestion and passage rate of the solid and liquid digesta fraction were determined. In experiment 2, 288 pigs (80 ± 0.48 kg; sex ratio per pen 1 : 1; boar : gilt) were housed in groups of 6. Pigs were ad libitum-fed one of the experimental diets, and slaughtered at approximately 115 kg. Feed intake, growth and carcass parameters were measured. Ileal starch digestibility was greater for LRS-fed than for HRS-fed pigs (98.0% v. 74.0%; P < 0.001), where the additional undigested starch in HRS-fed pigs was fermented in the large intestine. No effects of RS on digesta passage rate of the solid or liquid digesta fraction and on feeding behavior were observed. Growth rate and feed intake did not differ between diets, whereas feed efficiency of HRS-fed pigs was 1%-unit higher than that of LRS-fed pigs (P = 0.041). The efficiency of feed used for carcass gain did not differ between diets indicating that the difference in feed efficiency was determined by the non-carcass fraction. Despite a 30% greater RS intake (of total starch) with HRS than with LRS, carcass gain and feed efficiency used for carcass gain were unaffected. RS did not affect digesta passage rate nor feeding behavior suggesting that the difference in energy intake between fermented and digested starch is compensated for post-absorptively. Our results indicate that the net energy value of fermented starch currently used in pig feed evaluation systems is underestimated and should be reconsidered.

Effect of dietary graded resistant potato starch levels on growth performance, plasma cytokines concentration, and intestinal health in meat ducks

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of dietary graded raw potato starch (RPS) levels on growth performance, plasma cytokines concentration, ileal barrier function, and cecal short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) concentration in meat ducks from 1 to 35 D of age. This study included 2 experiments. In experiment (Exp.) 1, sixteen 35-day-old meat ducks were used to evaluate the AME of RPS by orogastric administration. Results showed the AME value of RPS on ducks is 2.76 kcal/g. In Exp. 2, a total of 600 one-day-old ducklings were randomly assigned to 5 isonitrogenous and isoenergetic dietary treatments that included 0 (control), 6, 12, 18, and 24% RPS, respectively. Samples were collected at both of 14 and 35 D. Neither growth performance nor ileal parameters (length, weight, and pH) at both of 14 and 35 D was affected by dietary RPS. However, the mucosal thickness (14 D), villus height (except for 18% RPS at 14 D), and the villus height: crypt depth ratio (14 and 35 D) of the ileum were increased in the 12 and 18% RPS diets when compared to 0% RPS diet. Meanwhile, proinflammatory factors such as plasma interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 (14 D) reduced in 12% RPS diet and tumor necrosis factor α decreased in 12% (except for 14 D) and 18% RPS groups. When compared with the control group, diets with 18% RPS significantly increased mucin 2 gene expression at 14 D, and 12% RPS elevated the mRNA expression of tight junction proteins including Zonula occludens-1 and Claudin 1 (except for 14 D) in the ileal mucosa of birds. Furthermore, ducks fed 12% RPS diet had higher concentrations of acetate, propionate, and butyrate in cecal digesta than other groups. These findings indicated that diets with 12 and/or 18% RPS increased the cecal SCFA concentration, which subsequently enhanced the barrier function and improved intestinal health in the ileum for 14 and 35-day-old meat ducks.

Cooking shapes the structure and function of the gut microbiome

Diet is a critical determinant of variation in gut microbial structure and function, outweighing even host genetics1-3. Numerous microbiome studies have compared diets with divergent ingredients1-5, but the everyday practice of cooking remains understudied. Here, we show that a plant diet served raw versus cooked reshapes the murine gut microbiome, with effects attributable to improvements in starch digestibility and degradation of plant-derived compounds. Shifts in the gut microbiota modulated host energy status, applied across multiple starch-rich plants, and were detectable in humans. Thus, diet-driven host-microbial interactions depend on the food as well as its form. Because cooking is human-specific, ubiquitous and ancient6,7, our results prompt the hypothesis that humans and our microbiomes co-evolved under unique cooking-related pressures.

Microbiome-Metabolomics Analysis Investigating the Impacts of Dietary Starch Types on the Composition and Metabolism of Colonic Microbiota in Finishing Pigs

The present study used a combination of 16S rRNA MiSeq sequencing strategy and gas chromatograph time of flight mass spectrometer (GC-TOF/MS) technique to investigate the effects of starch sources on the colonic microbiota and their metabolites in finishing pigs. A total of 72 crossbred barrows were allocated to three different experimental diets with eight replicates and three pigs per replicate. The diet types included tapioca starch (TS), corn starch (CS), and pea starch (PS) (amylose/amylopectin were 0.11, 0.25, and 0.44, respectively). Results showed that the PS diet markedly increased (adjusted P < 0.05) the abundance of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and lactate producers, such as Lactobacillus, Prevotella, Faecalibacterium, and Megasphaera, while decreased (adjusted P < 0.05) the abundance of Escherichia coli when compared with the TS diet. The metabolomic and biochemistry analyses demonstrated that the PS diet increased (adjusted P < 0.05) the concentrations of organic acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate, valerate, and lactate) and some macronutrients (sugars and long-chain fatty acids), and decreased (adjusted P < 0.05) the amino acids and their derivatives (leucine, glycine, putrescine, cadaverine, skatole, indole, and phenol) when compared with the TS diet. Additionally, Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed that the changes in the colonic metabolites were associated with changes in the microbial composition. Correlatively, these findings demonstrated that the different dietary starch types treatment significantly altered the intestinal microbiota and metabolite profiles of the pigs, and dietary with higher amylose may offer potential benefits for gut health.

Role of Feed Processing on Gut Health and Function in Pigs and Poultry: Conundrum of Optimal Particle Size and Hydrothermal Regimens

The aim is to give an overview of available literature data on the role of feed processing on gut health and function with specific focus on particle size and hydrothermal processing. In addition, influence of feed processing on efficacy of exogenous feed enzymes will be discussed. The current feed processing technologies are such that ingredient choices and diet form are refined to improve feed intake and nutrient utilization efficiency. Finer feed particle size enables optimal nutrient utilization and enhances animal performance due to increased surface area allowing better contact with digestive enzymes. Moreover, adequate diminution of feed ingredients is beneficial to feed manufacturing processes such as mixing and hydrothermal treatments including pelleting, extrusion, and expansion. However, emerging trends in consumer and regulatory demands for restriction or cessation of animal production practices such as use of antimicrobial growth promoters are challenging current approaches to feed processing. There is limit as to the fineness of the particle size, as very fine particles negatively affect gut health due to higher incidences of stomach ulceration in pigs and gizzard dysfunction in poultry. Coarse particle size increases stomach and hindgut acidification which may be beneficial in controlling proliferation of enteric pathogens such as salmonella and E. coli. Optimal particle size could be designed in the grinding process using roller or hammer mill. However, since most commercial pigs and poultry diets are subjected to hydrothermal processes, additional reduction of feed particle size is inevitable. The need to achieve high physical quality and to reduce potential levels of feed-borne pathogens such as Salmonella has led to the application of relatively high conditioning temperatures during conventional hydrothermal processes, a practice that does not favor high nutrient utilization and stability of heat sensitive feed additives such as feed enzymes. Therefore, with evolving pig and poultry production practices, the regimens for feed processing will no longer be appreciated only in terms of optimizing nutrients utilization, but also in terms of impact on feed hygienic status, efficacy of feed additives, animal health, and food safety.

The microbial fermentation characteristics depend on both carbohydrate source and heat processing: a model experiment with ileo-cannulated pigs

The effects of carbohydrate (CHO) source and processing (extrusion cooking) on large intestinal fermentation products were studied in ileo-cannulated pigs as a model for humans. Pigs were fed diets containing barley, pea or a mixture of potato starch:wheat bran (PSWB) either raw or extrusion cooked. Extrusion cooking reduced the amount of starch fermented in the large intestine by 52-96% depending on the CHO source and the total pool of butyrate in the distal small intestine + large intestine by on average 60% across diets. Overall, extrusion cooking caused a shift in the composition of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced towards more acetate and less propionate and butyrate. The CHO source and processing highly affected the fermentation characteristics and extrusion cooking generally reduced large intestinal fermentation and resulted in a less desirable composition of the fermentation products. The latter outcome is non-conducive to a healthy large intestinal environment and its resulting metabolic health.

Methodological impact of starch determination on starch content and ileal digestibility of starch in grain legumes for growing pigs

Background

Grain legumes represent a valuable energy source in pig diets due to their high starch content. The present study was conducted to determine the content and apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch in different grain legume cultivars for pigs by means of both a polarimetric and enzymatic method for starch determination.

Methods

Three experiments were conducted with six barrows each which were fitted with ileal T-cannulas. In total, 18 diets including six different cultivars of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) and peas (Pisum sativum L.), five different cultivars of lupins (Lupinus luteus L., Lupinus angustifolius L.), and one diet with a soybean meal (SBM) were fed.

Results

The starch content of faba beans and peas was greater (P < 0.05) when determined polarimetrically than enzymatically (438 vs. 345 g/kg dry matter (DM) in faba beans and 509 vs. 390 g/kg DM in peas, respectively). Considerable lower starch contents were obtained in lupins and SBM, with 82 and 48 g/kg DM (analyzed polarimetrically) and <1.1 and 3 g/kg DM (analyzed enzymatically), respectively. Mean values for contents of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) in grain legumes ranged from 111 and 79 g/kg DM in peas to 248 and 207 g/kg DM in lupins, respectively. Contents of condensed tannins in the colored flowered faba bean cultivars ranged from 2.1 to 7.4 g/kg DM. The AID of starch was greater (P < 0.05) in pea than in faba bean cultivars, and using the polarimetric starch determination method resulted in greater (P < 0.05) digestibility values than using enzymatic starch analysis (84 vs. 80% in faba beans and 86 vs. 83% in peas). Moreover, AID of starch differed (P < 0.05) within pea cultivars and starch digestibility in faba beans decreased linearly (P < 0.05) as the content of condensed tannins increased. However, there was no relationship between contents of NDF and ADF and AID of starch in pea and faba bean cultivars.

Conclusion

Both contents and AID of starch in grain legumes can vary as influenced by the analytical method used for starch determination. Generally, starch digestibility is greater when measured by polarimetric rather than enzymatic methods.

Procedures for determining digestibility of amino acids, lipids, starch, fibre, phosphorus, and calcium in feed ingredients fed to pigs

The proportion of nutrients that is absorbed from the intestinal tract of the pig differs among dietary ingredients; therefore, it would be desirable to determine the proportion of nutrients that is absorbed for each ingredient, but, for practical reasons, values for the digestibility of nutrients in each ingredient are used as predictors of absorption. For amino acids, starch and lipids, ileal digestibility must be determined because nutrients not absorbed in the small intestine will be fermented or changed in the large intestine, which invalidates data for total tract digestibility of these nutrients. For starch, apparent ileal digestibility is a reasonable predictor of its disappearance from the small intestine, but because of endogenous secretions of amino acids and lipids into the small intestine, standardised ileal digestibility of amino acids and true ileal digestibility of fat must be determined. For fibre, total tract digestibility is used to estimate fermentation and subsequent absorption of short-chain fatty acids, but it must be corrected for endogenous secretions. Likewise, for phosphorus and calcium, values for apparent total tract digestibility must be corrected for basal endogenous losses; consequently, standardised total tract digestibility of phosphorus and calcium is calculated and used in diet formulation. These procedures for determining the digestibility of nutrients in feed ingredients make it possible to formulate diets in which concentrations of digestible nutrients can be predicted from values for individual feed ingredients.

Influence of extrusion of corn and broken rice on energy content and growth performance of weaning pigs

Two experiments were conducted to study the effects of extrusion on the energy content of corn and broken rice and on growth performance of weaning pigs. In experiment 1, 24 barrows (28 days old, 7.28 ± 0.90 kg body weight (BW)) were used to compare the effects of extrusion of corn and broken rice on the values of digestible energy (DE) in weaned pigs. The DE content in extruded corn (17.45 MJ/kg dry matter (DM)) was significantly greater (P < 0.05) by 5.54% compared with that in corn (16.48 MJ/kg DM), while no significant difference in DE content was observed between extruded broken rice (17.66 MJ/kg DM) and broken rice (17.76 MJ/kg DM). In experiment 2, 120 weanling pigs (21 days old, 5.76 ± 0.07 kg BW) were used to evaluate the influence of substitution corn and extruded corn by different proportions of raw and extruded broken rice on growth performance of pigs. The inclusion of broken rice in the diets improved (P < 0.05) growth performance of pigs during the first week and the 2 weeks post-weaning but not thereafter. However, there was no significant difference in growth performance between treatments in other periods. Overall, this study indicates that feeding weaning pigs with broken rice has beneficial results.

In vitro and in vivo digestibility of corn starch for weaned pigs: Effects of amylose:amylopectin ratio, extrusion, storage duration, and enzyme supplementation

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of amylose (AM):amylopectin (AP) ratio, extrusion, storage duration, and enzyme supplementation on starch digestibility of corn. Three corn varieties with high (0.60; HA), medium (0.44; MA), and low (0.39; LA) AM:AP ratios, respectively, were selected from 74 corn samples to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo digestibility of starch. In Exp. 1, during wk 4 after extrusion, resistant starch (RS) content of the 3 selected corn varieties (LA, MA, and HA) increased (P < 0.05) each week and starch digestibility in vitro decreased as storage time increased (P < 0.05). The AM:AP ratio affected the formation of RS (P < 0.01). The RS content of the 3 corn varieties was ranked as LA < MA < HA in each week (P < 0.05). Correlation analysis showed that AM:AP ratio and storage duration were both positively correlated with RS content (P < 0.01). Furthermore, a significant quadratic relation was found between storage duration and RS content in each corn variety as well as storage duration and digestibility. Starch digestibility was negatively correlated with RS content (P < 0.001). In Exp. 2, digestion trials were performed on cannulated pigs with BW of 13.20 ± 0.94 kg. Extrusion increased ileal digestibility of GE and starch of either HA or LA compared with the enzyme-supplemented diets (P < 0.001). Enzyme supplementation did not improve ileal energy and starch digestibility. The ileal digestibility of starch and GE of LA varieties was greater than HA samples (P < 0.05). The results implied that AM:AP ratio and storage duration after extrusion may be important determinants of RS formation and digestibility of starch for corn. In addition, RS content could be an important indicator of digestibility of starch in extruded corn. Using a lower AM:AP ratio corn or reducing the storage duration of extruded corn would help to reduce the formation of RS and improve the starch bioavailability of corn for piglets.