Influence of dietary plant oils on mammary lipogenic enzymes and the conjugated linoleic acid content of plasma and milk fat of lactating goats

Effects of PUFA-Rich Dietary Strategies on Ruminants' Mammary Gland Gene Network: A Nutrigenomics Review

Although the inclusion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in ruminants' diets appears to be a well-documented strategy to enrich milk with PUFAs, several gene networks that regulate milk synthesis and mammary gland homeostasis could be impaired. The objective of this literature review is to assess the effects of nutritional strategies focused on enriching milk with PUFAs on gene networks regulating mammary gland function and lipogenesis, as well as the impact of feed additives and bioactive compounds with prominent antioxidant potential on immune-oxidative transcriptional profiling, as a part of mammary gland homeostasis and health. The findings support the conclusion that PUFAs' inclusion in ruminants' diets more strongly downregulate the stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) gene compared to other key genes involved in de novo fatty acid synthesis in the mammary gland. Additionally, it was revealed that seed oils rich in linoleic and linolenic acids have no such strong impact on networks that regulate lipogenic homeostasis compared to marine oils rich in eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. Furthermore, ample evidence supports that cows and sheep are more prone to the suppression of lipogenesis pathways compared to goats under the impact of dietary marine PUFAs. On the other hand, the inclusion of feed additives and bioactive compounds with prominent antioxidant potential in ruminants' diets can strengthen mammary gland immune-oxidative status. Considering that PUFA's high propensity to oxidation can induce a cascade of pro-oxidant incidences, the simultaneous supplementation of antioxidant compounds and especially polyphenols may alleviate any side effects caused by PUFA overload in the mammary gland. In conclusion, future studies should deeply investigate the effects of PUFAs on mammary gland gene networks in an effort to holistically understand their impact on both milk fat depression syndrome and homeostatic disturbance.

Effect of Supplementing Dairy Goat Diets With Rapeseed Oil or Sunflower Oil on Performance, Milk Composition, Milk Fatty Acid Profile, and in vitro Fermentation Kinetics

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of supplementing dairy goat diets with rapeseed oil and sunflower oil on performance, milk composition, milk fatty acid profile, and in vitro fermentation kinetics. Nine Danish Landrace goats with 42 ± 5 days in milk were allocated to three treatment groups for 42 days. Animals received a basal diet, formulated with 85:15 forage:concentrate ratio, and the basal diet was supplemented with either rapeseed oil or sunflower oil at 4% of dry matter. Goat milk was sampled on days 14, 21, and 42. Milk composition was similar between treatments. From day 14 to day 42, milk yield increased (1.03 vs. 1.34 kg/d), while milk fat (2.72 vs. 1.82 g/d) and total solids (11.2 vs. 9.14 %) were reduced. Compared to control and rapeseed oil, sunflower decreased (P < 0.05) C4:0 (1.56, and 1.67 vs. 1.36 g/100 g) and both oils decreased (P < 0.05) C18:3n3 (0.60 vs. 0.20 and 0.10 g/100g). Rapeseed oil increased (P < 0.05) C18:2 cis9, trans11 compared to control and sunflower oil (0.37 vs. 0.13 and 0.19 g/100 g). Untargeted milk foodomics revealed slightly elevated (P < 0.05) gluconic acid and decreased hippuric acid (P < 0.05) in the milk of oil-fed goats compared to control. In vitro dry matter degradation (63.2 ± 0.02 %) was not affected by dietary treatments, while individual volatile fatty acid proportions, total volatile fatty acids (35.7 ± 2.44 mmol/l), CO2 (18.6 ± 1.15 mol), and CH4 (11.6 ± 1.16 mol) were not affected by dietary treatments. Sunflower oil and rapeseed oil decreased (P < 0.05) total gas production at 24 and 48 h compared with control. Overall, the use of sunflower oil or rapeseed oil at 4% DM inclusion did not compromise animal performance and milk composition.

Goat Milk Foodomics. Dietary Supplementation of Sunflower Oil and Rapeseed Oil Modify Milk Amino Acid and Organic Acid Profiles in Dairy Goats

The dietary supplementation of vegetable oils is known to improve the dietary energy density as well as milk fatty acid profile; however, the impacts on the milk foodome is largely unknown. This study investigated the effect of two different sources of unsaturated fatty acids, rapeseed oil and sunflower oil, as a feeding supplement on the milk foodome from dairy goats. Nine Danish Landrace goats at 42 ± 5 days in milk were allocated to three treatment groups for 42 days with three animals per group. A control group received a basal diet made of forage and concentrate at an 85:15 ratio. On top of the basal diet, the second and third groups received rapeseed oil or sunflower oil supplements at 4% of dry matter, respectively. Goat milk was sampled on days 14, 21, and 42. The milk foodome was measured using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The milk levels of 2-hydroxyisovaleric acid, oxaloacetic acid, and taurine were higher in the milk from goats fed with sunflower oil compared to the control group. More glucose-1-phosphate was found in the milk from goats fed with rapeseed oil compared to the control group. Amino acids, valine and tyrosine, and 2-hydroxyisovaleric acid and oxaloacetic acid were higher in the sunflower group compared to the rapeseed group, while the milk from the rapeseed-fed goats had greater levels of ethanol and 2-oxoglutaric acid compared to the sunflower group. Thus, results show that foodomics is suitable for studying how milk chemistry changes as a function of feeding regime.

Effects of conjugated linoleic acid on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and blood biochemical indexes of male sika deer (Cervus nippon)

ContextConjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is very important for animals and humans. CLA has many important biological functions, such as reducing fat and increasing muscle, antioxidation, improving immunity and so on. CLA requirements for deer have not been established.AimsA single-factor test was conducted to evaluate the effects of CLA supplementation on male sika deer.MethodsSixteen deer were divided in four groups (from G0 to G3) of four animals, each according to their bodyweight. Deer in G0 were fed a basal diet without CLA supplementation. Deer in G1, G2 and G3 were fed diets supplemented with CLA at concentrations of 0.25%, 0.5% and 1.0%. Growth performance, nutrient digestibility and blood biochemical indexes were measured.Key resultsThe results suggested that the average daily gain of deer increased with conjugated linoleic acid supplementation (P<0.05); maximal growth performance was seen in G2. The average daily feed intake showed differences among the treatments (P<0.01). The highest average daily feed intake was observed in Group G2. Feed to gain ratio (F:G) in Groups G1, G2 and G3 was different from that in Group G0 (P<0.01). The digestibility of crude protein and ether extract was increased by conjugated linoleic acid concentrations (P<0.05). The alkaline phosphatase activity showed a significant increase (P<0.05) in Groups G2 and G3, compared with Group G0. There were significant differences in cholesterol between G1 and G2 groups (P<0.05).ConclusionsThe results indicated that conjugated linoleic acid supplementation to diet plays a positive role in the growth of sika deer.ImplicationsThis experiment has shown the effects of dietary supplementation with CLA in sika deer breeding. It has layed a good foundation for the application of CLA supplementation in sika deer industry to promote the healthy development of sika deer breeding industry.

Effects of Calcium Soaps from Palm, Canola and Safflower Oils on Dry Matter Intake, Nutrient Digestibility, Milk Production, and Milk Composition in Dairy Goats

This study determined the effect of protected dietary oils on dry matter intake (DMI), digestibility and milk production in dairy goats. Nine Saanen goats were used in a 3 × 3 Latin square design with three periods of 25 days. A basal diet based on barley hay and corn silage was supplemented with 2.7% DM of calcium soaps of either palm (PO), canola (CO) or safflower (SO) oils. Data for dry matter intake, nutrient digestibility and milk production was analyzed using the general linear model (GLM) procedure of SAS. Gas production data was analyzed using the procedure of non-linear regression analysis (PROC NLIN) from SAS. Nutrient intakes were not affected by treatments. However, compared with CO, the digestibility of dry matter (653 vs. 552 and 588 g/kg), organic matter (663 vs. 559 and 606 g/kg) and neutral detergent fiber (616 vs. 460 and 510 g/kg) were lowered (p < 0.001) by SO and PO. Compared with CO, in vitro gas production increased (p < 0.001) in PO and SO (174 vs. 201 and 206 mL gas/g incubated DM). Compared with PO and CO, milk production increased (p < 0.001) with SO (0.88 and 0.95 vs. 1.10 kg/d, respectively). With regard to PO and SO, CO decreased fat (34 and 35 vs. 32 g/d) and protein (35 and 38 vs. 30 g/d) in milk. In conclusion, compared to the traditional use of calcium soaps manufactured from PO, protected SO resulted in increased milk yield without negative effects on digestibility and nutrient intake.

Camellia (Camellia oleifera Abel.) seed oil promotes milk fat and protein synthesis-related gene expression in bovine mammary epithelial cells

Camellia (Camellia oleifera Abel.) seed oil is a commonly used edible oil of China. In ancient Chinese literature, it is mentioned to be helpful for postpartum repair and lactation in women. Research on camellia seed oil (CO) as a feed additive for dairy cattle is less. We investigated the effect of CO on the expression of milk fat and protein syntheses-related genes in differentiated bovine mammary epithelial cells (MAC-T) using soybean oil (SO) as the control. The results showed that CO increased the expression of genes related to de novo synthesis of fatty acids including sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC), fatty acid synthase (FASN), lipoprotein lipase (LPL), and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) (p < .05). Among the milk protein genes analyzed, CO increased β-casein mRNA expression (p < .05) and decreased αS1-casein mRNA expression (p < .05) in MAC-T cells. CO upregulated the pathways related to milk protein synthesis with increased mRNA levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), RAC-alpha serine/threonine-protein kinase (AKT1), and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) (p < .05) in MAC-T cells. Ribosomal protein S6 kinase beta-1 (S6K1) gene was upregulated, and eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) gene (p < .05) was downregulated with CO treatment. The mRNA expression levels of janus kinase 2 (JAK2), activator of transcription 5-β (STAT5-β), and E74-like factor 5 (ELF5) were elevated in MAC-T cells treated with CO (p < .05). Meanwhile, the protein expression levels of S6K1, STAT5-β, phosphorylated mTOR (p-mTOR), p-S6K1, and p-STAT5-β increased in MAC-T cells treated with CO (p < .05). In summary, CO promoted β-casein synthesis by regulating PI3K-mTOR-S6K1 and JAK2-STAT5 signaling pathways and influenced fatty acid synthesis by regulating SREBP1-related genes in MAC-T cells. We need to further confirm the function of CO using in vivo models.

Adipogenic/lipogenic gene expression and fatty acid composition in chuck, loin, and round muscles in response to grain feeding of Yanbian Yellow cattle

We hypothesized that gene expression and fatty acid composition would differ among different muscle depots and over time on a grain-based finishing diet. Additionally, we hypothesized that the concentration of SFA would decrease and the concentration of MUFA would increase proportionately with increases in percent intramuscular lipid (%IML). Ten Yanbian Yellow cattle steers (approximately 8 mo of age) were fed a corn-based diet in which the proportion of corn in the ration was increased at 4-mo intervals. Muscle samples were taken by biopsy from the chuck (trapezius), loin (longissimus dorsi), and round (biceps femoris) muscles at 12, 16, 20, 24, and 28 mo of age. The %IML increased from 12 to 28 mo of age, especially between 24 and 28 mo of age, with loin > round > chuck (age × muscle interaction P < 0.001). The percentage (g/100 g total fatty acids) of oleic acid (18:1n-9), linoleic acid (18:2n-6), and α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3), and the MUFA:SFA ratio increased with age, whereas palmitic (16:0) and stearic acid (18:0) decreased with age in all muscles (age effect P < 0.001). The expression of sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP1), adipose tissue fatty acid- binding protein (FABP4), stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1), and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) increased, whereas the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and fatty acid synthase (FASN) decreased with age. Expression of PPARγ, FABP4, SREBP1, SCD, FASN, ACC1, and LPL was greater in the loin than in the chuck or round (age × muscle interaction P < 0.001), although the MUFA:SFA ratio was greater in the chuck than in the loin or round (muscle effect P < 0.001). In conclusion, adipogenic gene expression was greater in the loin than in the chuck or round muscles, consistent with the greater %IML of the loin. However, the greater SCD gene expression in the loin did not result in a greater amount of MUFA in the loin, relative to the chuck and round.

Effects of different vegetable oils on rumen fermentation and conjugated linoleic acid concentration in vitro

Aim:

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of different vegetable oils on rumen fermentation and concentrations of beneficial cis-9 trans-11 C18:2 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-11 C18:1 fatty acid (FA) in the rumen fluid in an in vitro condition.

Materials and Methods:

Six vegetable oils including sunflower, soybean, sesame, rice bran, groundnut, and mustard oils were used at three dose levels (0%, 3% and 4% of substrate dry matter [DM] basis) in three replicates for each treatment in a completely randomized design using 6 × 3 factorial arrangement. Rumen fluid for microbial culture was collected from four goats fed on a diet of concentrate mixture and berseem hay at a ratio of 60:40 on DM basis. The in vitro fermentation was performed in 100 ml conical flakes containing 50 ml of culture media and 0.5 g of substrates containing 0%, 3% and 4% vegetable oils.

Results:

Oils supplementation did not affect (p>0.05) in vitro DM digestibility, and concentrations of total volatile FAs and ammonia-N. Sunflower oil and soybean oil decreased (p<0.05) protozoal numbers with increasing levels of oils. Other oils had less pronounced effect (p>0.05) on protozoal numbers. Both trans-11 C18:1 FA and cis-9, trans-11 CLA concentrations were increased (p<0.05) by sunflower and soybean oil supplementation at 4% level with the highest concentration observed for sunflower oil. The addition of other oils did not significantly (p>0.05) increase the trans-11 C18:1 FA and cis-9, trans-11 CLA concentrations as compared to the control. The concentrations of stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids were not altered (p>0.05) due to the addition of any vegetable oils.

Conclusion:

Supplementation of sunflower and soybean oils enhanced beneficial trans-11 C18:1 FA and cis-9, trans-11 CLA concentrations in rumen fluid, while sesame, rice bran, groundnut, and mustard oils were ineffective in this study.

Dietary linseed oil with or without malate increases conjugated linoleic acid and oleic acid in milk fat and and gene expression in mammary gland and milk somatic cells of lactating goats

Supplementary dietary plant oils have the potential to alter milk fatty acid composition in ruminants as a result of changes in the amount and kind of fatty acid precursors. We hypothesized that linseed oil in combination with malate (a key propionate precursor in the rumen) would increase ∆9 unsaturated fatty acids and specific gene expression in somatic cells and mammary glands of lactating goats. Twelve lactating goats were used in a 3 × 3 Latin square design. Treatments included the basal diet (CON), the CON plus 4% linseed oil (LO), and the CON plus 4% linseed oil and 2% -malate (LOM). Relative to CON, the LO and LOM supplements increased the daily intake of palmitic (16:0), stearic (18:0), oleic (18:1-9), linoleic (18:2-6), α-linolenic (18:3-3), and γ-linolenic acids (18:2-6); α-linolenic acid intake was increased over 9-fold, from 6.77 to over 51 g/d ( < 0.02). The LO and LOM supplements increased daily milk yield, milk fat yield, and milk fat percentage ( < 0.05). The LOM supplement also increased milk lactose percentage and daily yield ( = 0.03). Both the LO and LOM supplements increased plasma glucose and total cholesterol and decreased plasma β-hydroxbutyrate concentrations ( = 0.03). The LO and LOM supplements increased concentrations of stearic acid; -vaccenic acid (TVA; 18:1-11); -9, -11 CLA; -10 -12 CLA; and α-linolenic acid in rumen fluid and increased the concentrations of oleic acid; TVA; -9, -11 CLA; -10, -12 CLA; and α-linolenic acid in plasma lipids and milk fat ( < 0.05). Conversely, the LO and LOM supplements decreased short- and medium-chain SFA, including lauric (12:0), myristic (14:0), and palmitic acids, in plasma and milk fat ( < 0.05). Relative mRNA levels for and () gene expression were increased in somatic cells and mammary gland tissue by LO and LOM ( < 0.05). We conclude that the higher intake and ruminal production of stearic acid promoted SCD gene expression in somatic cells and mammary tissue. Furthermore, milk somatic cells are a suitable substitute for documenting treatment effects of dietary oils on gene expression in goat mammary tissue.

Serum fatty acids, biochemical indices and antioxidant status in goats fed canola oil and palm oil blend

Background

Dietary supplementation of unsaturated fats in ruminants, if not stabilized, can instigate oxidative stress which can have negative impact on production performance and enhance the susceptibility to various diseases. The current study examined the effect of dietary 80 % canola oil and 20 % palm oil blend (CPOB) on serum fatty acids, antioxidant profile and biochemical indices in goats. Thirty Boer bucks (4–5 months old; initial BW, 20.34 ± 0.77 kg) were randomly assigned to diets containing 0, 4 or 8 % CPOB and fed daily for a period of 90 days. Blood was sampled from the goats on 0, 30, 60 and 90 days of the trial and the serum was analyzed for fatty acids, cholesterol, glucose, total protein, antioxidants and lipid oxidation.

Results

Neither diet nor sampling time influenced serum TBARS value, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activities, LDL cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose and total protein. Goats fed 4 and 8 % CPOB had higher (P < 0.05) total cholesterol and HDL cholesterol than the control goats on day 30, 60 and 90. The proportion of C15:0 decreased with increasing level of CPOB on day 30 and 60. Serum C18:1n-9 increased with increasing level of CPOB in diet on day 60. The proportion of C18:3n-3 and C22:5n-3 increased (P < 0.05), while the proportion of C18:2n-6 decreased (P < 0.05) with increase in the level of CPOB on day 60 and 90. Dietary CPOB did not affect serum total carotenoid and δ-tocopherol but did increase (P < 0.05) α and γ-tocopherol.

Conclusion

Dietary canola oil and palm oil blend could be supplemented in diets without instigating oxidative stress in goats.

Associação entre o óleo de soja e o óleo de peixe na dieta de cabras em lactação como estratégia para melhorar o perfil de ácidos graxos do leite

RESUMOOs objetivos neste experimento foram avaliar os efeitos da associação entre o óleo de soja e o óleo de peixe na dieta de cabras em lactação sobre o consumo de matéria seca e de nutrientes, a variação do peso corporal, a produção e composição do leite, assim como o perfil de ácidos graxos. As cabras foram alocadas em baias individuais, onde receberam dieta composta por 50% de feno de "coastcross" e 50% de concentrado. Foram utilizadas nove cabras mestiças Boer x Saanen multíparas, distribuídas em três quadrados latinos 3 X 3. O experimento teve duração de 51 dias, divididos em três períodos de 17 dias, sendo os 13 primeiros dias para adaptação dos animais às dietas e os 4 dias subsequentes para colheita de amostras e de dados. Os tratamentos experimentais foram: a) dieta controle (CT), sem adição de óleo; b) dieta contendo 3% de óleo de soja (OS); e c) dieta contendo 2,5% de óleo de soja + 0,5% de óleo de peixe (OS+P). A inclusão dos óleos reduziu (P<0,05) o consumo de matéria seca, no entanto aumentou (P<0,05) a eficiência alimentar dos animais, sem afetar (P>0,05) a produção de leite. Houve efeito (P<0,05) da dieta no perfil de ácidos graxos do leite, sendo que ambos os tratamentos com adição de óleo elevaram as concentrações de ácidos graxos de cadeia média e longa, reduzindo os de cadeia curta. O tratamento com a combinação do óleo de soja com o óleo de peixe foi o que promoveu os maiores aumentos na concentração de ácido vacênico (398%), rumênico (352%) e de CLA total (341%) no leite. Os resultados permitem concluir que a suplementação lipídica elevou a eficiência alimentar dos animais e que o fornecimento de óleo de soja em combinação ao óleo de peixe aumentou a concentração no leite dos ácidos graxos benéficos à saúde humana.

Fatty acid biosynthesis and lipogenic enzyme activities in subcutaneous adipose tissue of feedlot steers fed supplementary palm oil or soybean oil

We hypothesized that supplementing finishing diets with palm oil would promote adipocyte differentiation in subcutaneous adipose tissue of feedlot steers, and that soybean oil supplementation would depress adipocyte differentiation. Twenty-eight Angus steers were assigned randomly to 3 groups of 9 or 10 steers and fed a basal diet without additional fat (control), with 3% palm oil (rich in palmitic acid), or with 3% soybean oil (rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids), for 10 wk, top-dressed daily. Palm oil had no effect (P > 0.05) on ADG, food intake, or G:F, whereas soybean oil depressed ADG (P = 0.02), food intake (P = 0.04), and G:F (P = 0.05). Marbling scores tended (P = 0.09) to be greater in palm oil-fed steers (Modest(09)) than in soybean oil-fed steers (Small(55)). Subcutaneous adipocyte mean volume was greater in palm oil-fed steers (515.9 pL) than in soybean-supplemented cattle (395.6 pL; P = 0.01). Similarly, glucose and acetate incorporation into total lipids in vitro was greater in subcutaneous adipose tissue of palm oil-fed steers (119.9 and 242.8 nmol·3h(-1)·10(5) cells, respectively) than adipose tissue of soybean oil-fed steers in (48.9 and 95.8 nmol·3h(-1)·10(5) cells, respectively). Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and NADP-malate dehydrogenase activities were greater (P ≤ 0.05) in subcutaneous adipose tissue of palm oil-fed steers than in adipose tissue of control steers. Palm oil did not increase palmitic acid or decrease oleic acid in subcutaneous adipose tissue or LM, but decreased (P ≤ 0.05) myristoleic, palmitoleic, and cis-vaccenic acid in adipose tissue, indicating a depression in stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase activity. Soybean oil increased the proportion of α-linolenic acid in adipose tissue and muscle and increased linoleic acid and 18:1trans-10 in muscle. We conclude that palm oil supplementation promoted lipid synthesis in adipose tissue without depressing feed efficiency or increasing the palmitic acid content of beef.