Effects of dietary chromium supplementation on calf performance, metabolic hormones, oxidative status, and susceptibility to diarrhea and pneumonia

Graduate Student Literature Review: Role of antioxidants in calf immunity, growth, and health

The neonatal period for dairy calves is crucial for immune, metabolic, and physical development, which opens a window of disease susceptibility. Although the industry has relied on tools such as colostrum and vaccination to support early life immunity, there are several challenges when vaccinating neonatal calves: (1) the inability to mount an effective immune response, (2) interference with maternal antibodies, and (3) oxidative stress (OS). Oxidative stress is characterized as the imbalance of pro-oxidants to antioxidants that results in cellular oxidative damage or dysfunction. Oxidative stress has become a topic of interest in the neonatal period because it negatively affects lymphocyte function, which might affect vaccine response. Widely studied in mature cattle, antioxidant supplementation has the potential to improve reduction-oxidation balance and immune response. Evidence supporting the use of antioxidants such as vitamins and minerals in neonatal calves is far scarcer but necessary to optimize immunity and disease resistance. This review summarizes research on the effect of antioxidant supplementation on calf immunity, health, and productivity and highlights remaining gaps in knowledge. Overall, micronutrient supplementation, including vitamins and minerals, in preweaning and postweaning calves improved immune responses but there is conflicting evidence supporting the subsequent positive effect on calf health and growth performance.

Chromium in the Diet of Dairy Calves: Benefits for Growth Performance, Feed Efficiency, Digestibility, and Health

Chromium (Cr) is a mineral that helps animals subjected to stressful conditions. The suckling period is characterized by several stressful episodes, particularly during the first hours after birth and at weaning. There is little consumption of concentrate by calves in the first weeks of life; consequently, consuming any supplement added to feed would be negligible. Thus, the hypothesis was that the calves would take it in earlier if Cr were consumed in a milk replacer instead. Therefore, our study aimed to determine whether including organic Cr in calf feed (via milk replacer or concentrate) during the suckling phase would improve calf health and growth performance. Twenty-four male Holstein calves with an average age of 8 ± 4 days and 39.8 ± 6.9 kg average body weight were used. Calves were randomly divided into three groups: (a) Chromium-Milk (CR-M), receiving 4 mg Cr/animal/day via milk replacer during the 60 experimental days of suckling (n = 8); (b) Chromium-Concentrate (CR-C), receiving 4 mg Cr/animal/day via concentrate (n = 8); (c) Control (C), animals that did not receive Chromium (n = 8). The experiment lasted 75 days, divided into two well-defined stages: suckling (1-60 days) and weaning (61-75 days). Body weight weekly, daily feed intake, and blood samples taken every two weeks during the experiment were evaluated. At the end of the experiment, the apparent digestibility evaluation was carried out, with the results of weight and consumption carried out, and a feed efficiency analysis was carried out. It was observed that the inclusion of organic Cr (regardless of whether it was milk or concentrate) increased body weight gain (kg) for the CR-C group: 41.8 kg, CR-M: 40.4 kg compared to the C: 34.2 kg (p = 0.01). The protein digestibility was higher in the CR-M group (52%, p = 0.05). Cr consumption increased Cr concentrations in the serum of the calves and was higher in the first week in the animals in the CR-M group. This did not happen for the C group; however, with higher concentrate consumption, Cr concentrations increased and remained high until the end of the experiment. Glucose concentrations were higher in the groups that consumed Cr. Total protein concentrations were higher in the CR-M and CR-C groups than in group C. Immunoglobulin A concentrations were higher in groups CR-C and CR-M than in group C (days 40 and 60). In conclusion, the adding Cr to calf feed improves their health, indirectly favors growth performance, and increases protein digestibility.

Does the peroral chromium administration in young Hariana calves reduce the risk of calf diarrhea by ameliorating insulin response, lactose intolerance, antioxidant status, and immune response?

BACKGROUND

The reduction in insulin sensitivity during rumen development may predispose dairy calves towards lactose intolerance, which could be the reason behind neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD). Chromium (Cr) results in a range of effects when fed to ruminants, but most studies have shown improved insulin sensitivity. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of Cr supplementation on insulin sensitivity, lactose intolerance, diarrhoea and antioxidant, and immune response in young Hariana calves.

METHODS

A total of 20 milk-fed Hariana calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments, each consisted of 10 calves: (1) a control group without supplemental Cr and (2) a 0.15 mg Cr as Cr-picolinate (CrPic)/kg BW0.75 supplemented group (Cr0.15).

RESULTS

A more rapid glucose disappearance with unaltered insulin kinetics during intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT) and oral lactose tolerance test (OLTT) indicates greater insulin sensitivity in Cr supplemented calves. Better insulin sensitivity in Cr supplemented calves was further confirmed by higher values of the quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI), revised quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (RQUICKI) and insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) and lower (P < 0.05) values of homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and glucose-to-insulin ratio in Cr supplemented calves during IVGTT. Cr supplementation resulted in a lower (P < 0.05) serum cortisol concentration, whereas serum non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations during IVGTT did not differ among the groups. The rise in serum glucose concentrations within 2 h post lactose infusion during OLTT peaked at more than twice the basal glucose concentration, therefore calves were not considered as lactose intolerant. Within monthly blood samples, concentrations of serum insulin were similar among treatments, whereas the Cr supplemented group had lower (P < 0.05) serum glucose concentration and glucose-to-insulin ratio compared with the control group. No treatment differences were detected in the biomarkers of antioxidant status and immunity. Serum Cr concentrations were higher (P < 0.05) in Cr supplemented calves while concentrations of other studied minerals were remained unaltered. The incidence, duration of diarrhea, and faecal score were better (P < 0.05) in calves fed on Cr supplemented diet whereas, no treatment effect was observed on average daily gain (ADG). During the study period, no calves died, and no calves were found to have pneumonia, navel or joint disease.

CONCLUSION

Feeding a Cr-supplemented diet improved insulin sensitivity and reduced the risk of diarrhoea in milk-fed young calves, but had no or minimal effects on lactose intolerance, antioxidant status, immune response, and growth performance.

Dietary Chromium Picolinate Supplementation Improves Glucose Utilization in Transition Calf by Ameliorating Insulin Response

The decrease in insulin sensitivity during the transition of preruminant calves into ruminant animals is the common denominator. Meanwhile, this adaptation predisposes dairy calves towards various health issues and metabolic disorders that occur in later life. Chromium (Cr) has been shown to potentiate insulin functioning and is thereby helpful in reducing the risk of these metabolic disorders. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of Cr supplementation on the insulin sensitivity and health status in Hariana calves during their transition period. A total of 24 preruminant Hariana calves were randomly allocated into four groups (6 calves per group) for a period of 90 days. Calves either received a basal diet devoid of supplemental Cr (control; Cr_0.0 group) or were supplemented with 0.05 mg (Cr_0.05 group), 0.10 mg (Cr_0.10 group), and 0.15 mg (Cr_0.15 group) of Cr per kg BW^0.75 as Cr-picolinate (Cr-Pic). To determine the effect of Cr supplementation on the insulin response, glucose-insulin-non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) kinetics was studied during the intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT) and oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). A rapid glucose disappearance (p < 0.05) with unaltered insulin kinetics during IVGTT and OLTT indicates greater insulin sensitivity in calves supplemented with 0.10 and 0.15 mg of Cr per kg BW^0.75. Improved insulin sensitivity in the Cr_0.10 and Cr_0.15 groups was further confirmed by higher (p < 0.05) values of the insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI), revised quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (RQUICKI), and lower (p < 0.05) values of the homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) during IVGTT. Mean serum non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA_m), and insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) levels were the highest (p < 0.05) and cortisol concentrations were the lowest (p < 0.05) in the Cr_0.15 groups. Unlike IVGTT, there was no effect of treatment, period, and treatment × period interaction on mean serum glucose and insulin levels during OGTT. However, Cr-supplemented calves had a higher (p < 0.05) glucose clearance rate (_gCR). Serum IRS-1 concentrations during OGTT were also higher (p < 0.05) in the Cr_0.10 and Cr_0.15 groups than in the other groups. Serum Cr levels increased dose dependently and were the highest (p < 0.05) in calves fed a diet supplemented with 0.15 mg Cr per kg BW^0.75. There was no effect of treatment on average daily gain (ADG) and body condition score (BCS) while frequency and duration of diarrhea were lower and fecal score was better in Cr-supplemented calves. The current findings show that Cr supplementation improved glucose utilization and health status in calves during their transition period by improving insulin sensitivity.

Potential use of chromium to combat thermal stress in animals: A review

Heat stress (HS) has adverse effects on the body: it decreases body weight, feed efficiency, feed intake, carcass quality, and nutrient digestibility. Chromium (Cr) can prevent lipid peroxidation induced by HS through its strong antioxidant activities, especially when it is added to the poultry diet. It improves the action of insulin and nutrient metabolism (of lipids, proteins, nucleic acid, and carbohydrates) through activation of enzymes associated with such pathways. The results of the studies on Cr added to diets with concentrations of 0.05 mg Cr/kg of Cr-methionine led to improved feed efficiency and DM intake by cows and Holstein dairy calves exposed to high environmental temperatures. Moreover, calves that received Cr at levels of 0.05 mg/kg of body weight tended to have higher serum concentrations of glucose and higher ratios of insulin to glucose. In heat-stressed pigs, Cr addition (200 ppb) increased blood neutrophils by about 37%. Several studies have asserted that Cr can inhibit inflammation in lactating cows by promoting the release of Hsp72, assisting production of IL-10 and inhibiting degradation of IκBα in HS conditions. In addition, Cr supplementation was observed to possibly have positive impacts on both cell-mediated and humeral immunity in heat-stressed buffalo calves. Studies over the last two decades have shown with certainty that chromium supplementation has an impact on many variables in chickens. Moreover, Cr is believed to increase insulin action in insulin-sensitive tissues (i.e., adipose and muscles), resulting in increased farm animal productivity through the improvement of feed intake, growth rate, carcass quality, reproductive parameters and immune functions.

Chromium supplementation improves glucose metabolism and vaginal temperature regulation in Girolando cows under heat stress conditions in a climatic chamber

This study aimed to evaluate chromium supplementation on productive, reproductive, and metabolic parameters at lactating Girolando cows subjected to heat stress conditions in a climatic chamber. Thirty-six lactating Girolando cows were subjected to two sequential trials. In trial 1 (thermoneutral environment), the effect of chromium supplementation was evaluated (0 vs. 0.50 mg/kg of dry matter). In trial 2, the cows were fed the same diets, but they were divided into three environmental conditions: heat stress conditions in climatic chamber, fed ad libitum (HS); thermoneutral environment, fed ad libitum (TN); and thermoneutral environment, pair-fed (PF). In thermoneutral conditions, chromium supplementation did not affect productive or metabolic parameters, although supplemented cows had lower viability of oocytes (65.11 ± 0.08% vs. 76.86 ± 0.08%). During heat stress, chromium supplementation lowered plasma glucose levels (61.17 ± 1.90 vs. 67.11 ± 1.90 mg/dL), and increased the insulin:glucose ratio (0.39 ± 0.04 vs. 0.27 ± 0.04). Cows fed the control diet in the HS group had higher vaginal temperature values (39.40 ± 0.10 °C) than the cows in the TN group and PF group (38.89 ± 0.10 °C and 38.85 ± 0.11 °C, respectively). However, supplemented cows heat-stressed maintained the same vaginal temperature as cows in thermoneutral conditions. In conclusion, chromium supplementation improved glucose metabolism and prevented body temperature increases under heat stress conditions.

Grain source and chromium supplementation: Effects on health, metabolic status, and glucose-insulin kinetics in Holstein heifer calves

Carbohydrate-rich diets may increase urinary excretion of chromium (Cr) and the need to supplement the diet with Cr to meet animal requirements. The present study was performed to examine the effect of the type of grain (corn vs. barley) and Cr-methionine supplementation on health-related variables, blood levels of metabolites and hormones related to energy metabolism, and insulin sensitivity in Holstein calves. Forty-eight newborn heifers (3 d of age) were assigned randomly to 4 diets in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. Experimental diets were either corn-based (CBD) or barley-based (BBD) diets supplemented with 0 or 0.05 mg/kg of metabolic body weight. Chromium was provided in milk before weaning (d 3-73 of age) and in prewarmed water after weaning (d 74-94 of age). There was no interaction between the type of grain and Cr on the health-related variables and blood metabolites and hormones. Type of grain did not affect fecal score, respiration rate, and rectal temperature; however, there were tendencies for higher diarrhea occurrence (odds ratio = 1.69) and lower chance of having pneumonia (odds ratio = 0.49) in calves fed BBD versus CBD despite longer duration of diarrhea (0.54 d) and shorter days with pneumonia (0.63 d) in calves fed BBD. Calves supplemented with Cr had lower fecal score during the preweaning and overall periods and respiration rate throughout the study. Supplemental Cr decreased the duration (0.63 d) and chance of having pneumonia (odds ratio = 2.01). Calves fed BBD had lower blood levels of urea N during the postweaning period, with no changes in other blood variables between CBD and BBD. Tendencies were detected for lower blood levels of β-hydroxybutyric acid during the preweaning and overall periods and higher cortisol in Cr-supplemented calves. Chromium supplementation increased insulin clearance rate and decreased the time to half-maximal concentration and the area under the curve in BBD but not CBD calves. The calves were generally healthy, and the type of grain did not affect the health and blood variables related to energy metabolism. However, Cr supplementation increased fecal consistency, decreased respiration rate and days with pneumonia, and increased insulin sensitivity when added to BBD.