Brain Functional Specialization Is Enhanced Among Tai Chi Chuan Practitioners

Neurobiomechanical mechanism of Tai Chi to improve upper limb coordination function in post-stroke patients: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Upper limb dysfunction seriously affects the ability of stroke patients to perform activities of daily living. As a popular exercise therapy, Tai Chi may become an alternative intervention. However, the neurophysiological mechanism by which Tai Chi improves upper limb dysfunction in stroke patients is still unclear, which limits its further promotion and application. Therefore, conducting a strict randomized clinical trial is necessary to observe how Tai Chi affects upper limb dysfunction in stroke patients and to explore its neurophysiological mechanism.

METHODS/DESIGN

This report describes a randomized, parallel-controlled trial with distributive concealment and evaluator blinding. A total of 84 eligible participants will be randomly assigned to the Tai Chi group or the control group in a 1:1 ratio. The participants in the Tai Chi group will receive 4 weeks of Tai Chi training: five 60-min sessions a week for a total of 20 sessions. The participants in the control group will not receive Tai Chi training. Both groups will receive medical treatment and routine rehabilitation training. The primary outcome measure is the mean change in the Fugl-Meyer Assessment Upper Extremity (FMA-UE) scale score between baseline and 4 weeks; the secondary outcomes are the mean changes in kinematic characteristics and the Wolf Motor Function Test (WMFT) and Stroke Impact Scale (SIS) scores. In addition, the corticomuscular coupling level and near-infrared brain functional imaging will be monitored to explore the mechanism by which Tai Chi improves upper limb function of stroke patients.

DISCUSSION

This randomized controlled trial will examine the effectiveness of Tai Chi in stroke patients with upper limb dysfunction and explore the neurophysiological mechanism. Positive results will verify that Tai Chi can improve upper limb function of stroke patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Chinese Clinical Trial Registration Center, ChiCTR2200061376 (retrospectively registered). Registered June 22, 2022. http://www.chictr.org.cn/listbycreater.aspx . Manuscript Version: 3.0 Manuscript Date: October 10, 2023.

Understanding Yin-Yang Philosophic Concept Behind Tai Chi Practice

Yin-yang theorizes that everything in the world is interoppositionally unified with 2 dynamic opposites (yin and yang), interrooted, interchangeable, and interconvertible. Tai chi (TC) movements and postures are essentially yin-yang concept-based. However, there is still a lack of understanding of yin-yang concepts and applications among people practicing TC. So, in this concept review, we aimed to provide basic understanding of the yin-yang concept and characteristics behind TC practice. Terms derived from the yin-yang concept in TC practice may include blood/qi (energy), stability/mobility, closing/opening moves, expiration/inspiration, solid/empty stance, and defensive/offensive hand movements and postures. These yin-yang attributes are interrestricted and dependent on maintaining a dynamic mind-body harmony. With the yin-yang application, TC can be considered a self-controlled balance perturbation exercise to challenge the stability-mobility (yin-yang) to a new level of harmony. As a health promotion holistic intervention, TC can facilitate the flow in blood/qi pathways or meridians to improve medical conditions. As an integrative mind-body exercise, TC can activate different body parts and brain regions to participate in and coordinate the combined physical and mental activities.

The neurobiological effects of mind-body exercise: a systematic review and meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies

The neurobiological effects of mind-body exercise on brain activation, functional neural connections and structural changes in the brain remain elusive. This systematic review and coordinate-based meta-analysis investigated the changes in resting-state and task-based brain activation, as well as structural brain changes before and after mind-body exercise compared to waitlist or active controls based on published structural or functional magnetic resonance imaging randomized controlled trials or cross-sectional studies. Electronic database search and manual search in relevant publications yielded 34 empirical studies with low-to-moderate risk of bias (assessed by Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials or Joanna Briggs Institute's critical appraisal checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies) that fulfilled the inclusion criteria, with 26 studies included in the narrative synthesis and 8 studies included in the meta-analysis. Coordinate-based meta-analysis showed that, while mind-body exercise enhanced the activation of the left anterior cingulate cortex within the default mode network (DMN), it induced more deactivation in the left supramarginal gyrus within the ventral attention network (uncorrected ps < 0.05). Meta-regression with duration of mind-body practice as a factor showed that, the activation of right inferior parietal gyrus within the DMN showed a positive association with increasing years of practice (voxel-corrected p < 0.005). Although mind-body exercise is shown to selectively modulate brain functional networks supporting attentional control and self-awareness, the overall certainty of evidence is limited by small number of studies. Further investigations are needed to understand the effects of both short-term and long-term mind-body exercise on structural changes in the brain.PROSPERO registration number: CRD42021248984.

From Ancient Patterns of Hand-to-Hand Combat to a Unique Therapy of the Future

The purpose of this publication is to provide generalized knowledge of the area of changes that took place over past centuries in relation to health, social and cultural conditions. In Greek mythology, it was necessary to nurture both body and spirit to be a perfect human being. This link between the concepts of physical beauty and goodness can be also found in later works dedicated to ancient Greek history. Particularly in Greek myths, and in Greek education in general, it was believed that both physical and spiritual excellence were necessary to raise men to achieve their true form. Some of the main forms of implementing this idea were hand-to-hand combat exercises (wrestling, boxing and pankration). Ideas characteristic of the world of ancient Greece, in a general sense, can be observed in the culture of the Far East. The main difference is the fact that these principles did not survive in Western culture as a result of transformation into a consumer society focused on the rejection of moral principles. The brutalisation of the forms of the Roman Games meant that the ideals of the ancient world were forgotten for more than 1500 years. The modern Olympic Games were resurrected in the 19th century. Inspired by the ancient Greek cult of health of body and spirit, they gave rise to a movement known as Olympism. In the Olympic Charter written by Coubertin, Olympism was called "a philosophy of life exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind". The combat sports disciplines have had their place there since the beginning of the modern Olympic Games. The evolution of hand-to-hand combat disciplines, including numerous scientific studies indicating a very broad impact in the area of health, led to this type of physical activity being reached for as an essential element in supporting the health-promoting behaviour of society. Nowadays, physical activity in the area of exercise with elements of hand-to-hand combat, combat sports, or martial arts is an indissoluble link in the prevention and treatment of 21st century diseases. For Parkinson's disease patients, drug treatment is an essential resource for continuing to function in society, but it will not be completely effective without supporting the treatment with appropriate and attractive physical activity (e.g., "Rock Steady Boxing"). Of similar importance is the prevention of dangerous falls, which are common in this population as well as among the elderly or those affected by other diseases of civilisation. Implementing the principles and techniques of safe falling in the teaching of the young population significantly increases the likelihood of applying appropriate responses to these individuals in adulthood and old age. Actions that should be taken now for prevention can be implemented through social programmes, such as "Active today for a healthy future".

The effect of Bafa Wubu of Tai Chi on college students' anxiety and depression: A randomized, controlled pilot study

Objective: This pilot study aimed to explore the mechanism of the effects of Bafa Wubu of Tai Chi (BWTC) on anxiety and depression in college students using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (RS-fMRI). Methods: Eighteen college students (5 males and 13 females) with anxiety and depression met the study criteria and were randomly divided into an experimental group (aged 24.20 ± 4.07 years) and a control group (aged 22.50 ± 5.95). The experimental group received an eight-week BWTC intervention five times/week for 60 min/session. The control group maintained normal daily life without any exercise intervention. These students were assessed using RS-fMRI scans, the self-rating anxiety scale (SAS), and the self-rating depression scale (SDS). Spearman correlation analysis was used, and statistical significance was defined as a two-sided p-value of <0.05. Results: After the intervention, the SAS and SDS scores of the BWTC group significantly reduced (p = 0.002; p = 0.001). Compared with the control group, the fALFF values of the right middle frontal gyrus, orbital part (Frontal_Mid_Orb_R) (p = 0.043), right inferior occipital gyrus (Occipital_Inf_R) (p = 0.003), and right middle temporal gyrus of the temporal pole (Temporal_Pole_Mid_R) (p = 0.003) in the BWTC group increased significantly; the fALFF values of the left middle frontal gyrus (Frontal_Mid_L) (p = 0.001) and right supplementary motor area (Supp_Motor_Area_R) (p = 0.010) in BWTC group decreased significantly. The fALFF values of Frontal_Mid_Orb_R were significantly positively correlated with the SDS score (r = 0.852, p = 0.015) and the fALFF values of Frontal_Mid_L were significantly negatively correlated with the SAS score (r = -0.797, p = 0.032). Conclusion: In this pilot study with college students, BWTC alleviated anxiety and depression, potentially through modulating activity in the Frontal_Mid_L and Frontal_Mid_Orb_R, respectively.

Tai Chi practice enables prefrontal cortex bilateral activation and gait performance prioritization during dual-task negotiating obstacle in older adults

BACKGROUND

With aging, the cognitive function of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) declined, postural control weakened, and fall risk increased. As a mind-body exercise, regular Tai Chi practice could improve postural control and effectively prevent falls; however, underlying brain mechanisms remained unclear, which were shed light on by analyzing the effect of Tai Chi on the PFC in older adults by means of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).

METHODS

36 healthy older adults without Tai Chi experience were divided randomly into Tai Chi group and Control group. The experiment was conducted four times per week for 16 weeks; 27 participants remained and completed the experiment. Negotiating obstacle task (NOT) and negotiating obstacle with cognitive task (NOCT) were performed pre- and post-intervention, and Brodmann area 10 (BA10) was detected using fNIRS for hemodynamic response. A three-dimensional motion capture system measured walking speed.

RESULTS

After intervention in the Tai Chi group under NOCT, the HbO2 concentration change value (ΔHbO2) in BA10 was significantly greater (right BA10: p = 0.002, left BA10: p = 0.001), walking speed was significantly faster (p = 0.040), and dual-task cost was significantly lower than pre-intervention (p = 0.047). ΔHbO2 in BA10 under NOCT was negatively correlated with dual-task cost (right BA10: r = -0.443, p = 0.021, left BA10: r = -0.448, p = 0.019). There were strong negative correlations between ΔHbO2 and ΔHbR under NOCT either pre-intervention (left PFC r = -0.841, p < 0.001; right PFC r = -0.795, p < 0.001) or post-intervention (left PFC r = -0.842, p < 0.001; right PFC r = -0.744, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Tai Chi practice might increase the cognitive resources in older adults through the PFC bilateral activation to prioritize gait performance during negotiating obstacles under a dual-task condition.

Brain Functional Connectivity in Middle-Aged Hong Chuan Tai Chi Players in Resting State

Tai Chi is an effective strategy for slowing cognitive decline, although the underlying mechanism remains unclear. We designed a cross-sectional study to examine brain functional connectivity in middle-aged Hong Chuan Tai Chi practitioners. Eighteen middle-aged Hong Chuan Tai Chi practitioners and 22 age-matched Tai Chi-naïve controls completed functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) tests to evaluate oxyhemoglobin changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), motor cortex (MC), and occipital cortex (OC) in five frequency intervals (I, 0.6-2 Hz; II, 0.145-0.6 Hz; III, 0.052-0.145 Hz; IV, 0.021-0.052 Hz; V, 0.0095-0.021 Hz). Wavelet phase coherence was used to analyze the match between the instantaneous phases of the two signals to accurately measure brain functional connectivity. Global cognition was measured using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment scale. Compared with the control group, Hong Chuan Tai Chi practitioners had better global cognition (p < 0.01) and showed higher functional connectivity of the PFC, MC, and OC in intervals I, III, VI, and V in the resting state within the same brain hemispheres or between the left and right hemispheres. Our findings revealed that middle-aged Hong Chuan Tai Chi practitioners had higher functional connectivity of the PFC, MC, and OC across both brain hemispheres in cardiac activity, myogenic activity, sympathetic nervous system, and endothelial cell metabolic activities which may contribute to higher global cognition.

The Effects of Tai Chi and Baduanjin Activities on Physical Interventions With Substance Use Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Objective: To evaluate the effect of Tai Chi (TC) and Baduanjin (Bdj) activities on the physical intervention of compulsory segregation drug addicts through a meta-analysis system.

Methods: Six commonly used databases were searched by computer to collect publicly available studies on the physical interventions of TC and Bdj activities for drug addicts from the time of database construction to May 2021. Two researchers independently screened the literature according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, jointly extracted the data, and evaluated the quality of the literature, and conducted Meta-analysis using RevMan 5.4 software.

Results: A total of 16 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) from 15 publications were included. Meta-analysis indicate that compared with the control group, TC and Bdj had significant effects on blood pressure, lung capacity, heart rate, closed-eye single-leg stand, and seated forward bending in drug addicts, as evidenced by: systolic pressure MD=−4.66, 95%CI = [−7.94, −1.39], p = .005; diastolic pressure MD = −3.49, 95%CI=[−5.45, −1.52], p = .0005; spirometry MD = 12.68, 95%CI = [43.83, 197.52], p = .002; heart rate MD = −2.78, 95%CI = [4.76, −.8], p = .006; MD = 1.47, 95%CI = [6.1, 14.84], p < .00,001 for one-leg stand with eyes closed, MD = 3.08, 95%CI = [1.8, 4.36], p < .00,001 for seated forward bend; however, the effect of TC and Bdj on BMI MD = .01, 95%CI = [−.54, .56], p = .97; grip strength MD = .68, 95%CI = [−.99, 2.34], p = .43; body fat percentage MD = .04, 95%CI = [−.59,.67], p = .91 had no effect.

Conclusions: Tai Chi and Bdj can improve the cardiovascular system, cardiorespiratory fitness, balance, and body flexibility of drug addicts better than conventional rehabilitation.

Integrating Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Treatment With 8-Week Tai Chi Chuan Practice: An Exploration of Mind-Body Intervention and Neural Mechanism

Objective

This study aims to explore the effect of integrating routine treatment with Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) intervention on the clinical symptom of patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) from clinical and neurological perspectives.

Methods

Twenty patients with COPD were recruited for regular treatment combined with 8-week TCC rehabilitative practice. Clinical symptoms were evaluated by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Symptom Assessment Scale (CAT) and Modified Dyspnea Scale (mMRC) at baseline and after treatment. Resting-state MRI scan was also performed with multiline T2-weighted echo-planar imaging (EPI) to acquire their functional images before and after the treatment. TCC rehabilitation involved a total of 8 weeks of practice with 90 min per session, three times a week.

Results

After an 8-week integration routine treatment with TCC practice, the patient’s clinical symptoms improved significantly. Imaging analysis showed that COPD patients exhibited decreased Degree of Centrality (DC) in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), right middle frontal gyrus, bilateral cingulate cortex, bilateral precuneus, and right precentral gyrus. Moreover, correlation analysis found that the decreased DC in the right IFG was positively correlated with the CAT improvements.

Conclusion

The routine treatment involving TCC rehabilitation practice could improve the clinical symptoms of patients with COPD. The right IFG might be a key brain region to contribute to the neural mechanism underlying integrative intervention on the clinical symptoms in COPD. These findings provide neurological evidence for treating COPD rehabilitation practice with mind-body practice based on Chinese culture to some extent, which also advances the understanding of the efficacy of TCC as the adjuvant technology from a neuroscience perspective.

Clinical Trial Registration:

[http://www.chictr.org.cn/showproj.aspx?proj=45189], identifier [ChiCTR1900028335].

The Potential Advantages of Tai Chi Chuan in Promoting Inhibitory Control and Spontaneous Neural Activity in Young Adults

Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) is assumed to exert beneficial effects on functional brain activity and cognitive function in elders. Until now, empirical evidence of TCC induced intra-regional spontaneous neural activity and inhibitory control remains inconclusive. Whether the effect of TCC is better than that of other aerobic exercises is still unknown, and the role of TCC in younger adults is not yet fully understood. Here we used resting-state functional MRI (fMRI) to investigate the effects of 8-week TCC (n = 12) and brisk walking (BW, n = 12) on inhibitory control and fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF). The results found that TCC had significant effects on inhibitory control performance and spontaneous neural activity that were associated with significantly increased fALFF in the left medial superior frontal gyrus (Cohen's d = 1.533) and the right fusiform gyrus (Cohen's d = 1.436) and decreased fALFF in the right dorsolateral superior frontal gyrus (Cohen's d = 1.405) and the right paracentral lobule (Cohen's d = 1.132).TCC exhibited stronger effects on spontaneous neural activity than the BW condition, as reflected in significantly increased fALFF in the left medial superior frontal gyrus (Cohen's d = 0.862). There was a significant positive correlation between the increase in fALFF in the left medial superior frontal gyrus and the enhancement in inhibitory control performance. The change in fALFF in the left medial superior frontal gyrus was able to explain the change in inhibitory control performance induced by TCC. In conclusion, our results indicated that 8 weeks of TCC intervention could improve processing efficiency related to inhibitory control and alter spontaneous neural activity in young adults, and TCC had potential advantages over BW intervention for optimizing spontaneous neural activity.

Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Other Lifestyle Factors in the Prevention of Cognitive Decline and Dementia

Multiple factors combined are currently recognized as contributors to cognitive decline. The main independent risk factor for cognitive impairment and dementia is advanced age followed by other determinants such as genetic, socioeconomic, and environmental factors, including nutrition and physical activity. In the next decades, a rise in dementia cases is expected due largely to the aging of the world population. There are no hitherto effective pharmaceutical therapies to treat age-associated cognitive impairment and dementia, which underscores the crucial role of prevention. A relationship among diet, physical activity, and other lifestyle factors with cognitive function has been intensively studied with mounting evidence supporting the role of these determinants in the development of cognitive decline and dementia, which is a chief cause of disability globally. Several dietary patterns, foods, and nutrients have been investigated in this regard, with some encouraging and other disappointing results. This review presents the current evidence for the effects of dietary patterns, dietary components, some supplements, physical activity, sleep patterns, and social engagement on the prevention or delay of the onset of age-related cognitive decline and dementia.

Tai Chi Chuan Alters Brain Functional Network Plasticity and Promotes Cognitive Flexibility

Objective: This study used resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate the effects of 8 weeks of Tai Chi Chuan and general aerobic exercise on the topological parameters of brain functional networks, explored the advantages of Tai Chi Chuan for improving functional network plasticity and cognitive flexibility, and examined how changes in topological attributes of brain functional networks relate to cognitive flexibility. Methods: Thirty-six healthy adults were grouped into Tai Chi Chuan (Bafa Wubu of Tai Chi), general aerobic exercise (brisk walking), and control groups. All of the subjects underwent fMRI and behavioral assessment before and after the exercise intervention. Results: Tai Chi Chuan exercise significantly enhanced the clustering coefficient and local efficiency compared with general aerobic exercise. Regarding the nodal properties, Tai Chi Chuan significantly enhanced the nodal clustering coefficient of the bilateral olfactory cortex and left thalamus, significantly reduced the nodal clustering coefficient of the left inferior temporal gyrus, significantly improved the nodal efficiency of the right precuneus and bilateral posterior cingulate gyrus, and significantly improved the nodal local efficiency of the left thalamus and right olfactory cortex. Furthermore, the behavioral performance results demonstrated that cognitive flexibility was enhanced by Tai Chi Chuan. The change in the nodal clustering coefficient in the left thalamus induced by Tai Chi Chuan was a significant predictor of cognitive flexibility. Conclusion: These findings demonstrated that Tai Chi Chuan could promote brain functional specialization. Brain functional specialization enhanced by Tai Chi Chuan exercise was a predictor of greater cognitive flexibility.

Effects of Mind-Body Exercise on Brain Structure and Function: A Systematic Review on MRI Studies

Mind–body exercise has been proposed to confer both physical and mental health benefits. However, there is no clear consensus on the neural mechanisms underlying the improvements in health. Herein, we conducted a systematic review to reveal which brain region or network is regulated by mind–body exercise. PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure databases were systematically searched to identify cross-sectional and intervention studies using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to explore the effect of mind–body exercise on brain structure and function, from their inception to June 2020. The risk of bias for cross-sectional studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist, whereas that of interventional studies was analyzed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. A total of 15 studies met the inclusion criteria. Our analysis revealed that mind–body exercise modulated brain structure, brain neural activity, and functional connectivity, mainly in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus/medial temporal lobe, lateral temporal lobe, insula, and the cingulate cortex, as well as the cognitive control and default mode networks, which might underlie the beneficial effects of such exercises on health. However, due to the heterogeneity of included studies, more randomized controlled trials with rigorous designs, similar measured outcomes, and whole-brain analyses are warranted.

Cognitive Benefits of Activity Engagement among 12,093 Adults Aged over 65 Years

Objective: The present study includes two aims: (1) to understand patterns of activity engagement among older Chinese adults; (2) to further investigate associations between activity engagement and cognitive abilities in this population. Methods: Latent class analysis was applied to answer the aforementioned research questions across different age ranges while controlling for confounding variables (age, health, socioeconomic status (SES), and living alone). Specifically, five latent classes (non-active, working-active, comprehensive-active, physical-active, and less-active) were identified. Furthermore, associations between the classes of activity engagement and cognition were examined separately in three age groups: less than 80 years (young-old group), 80–99.5 years (old-old group) and more than 100 years (oldest-old group) of age. Results: Compared with Non-active older individuals, the other classes with a higher probability of engagement in various activities generally showed higher cognitive abilities (including general cognition, orientation, calculation, recall, and language), but not all patterns of active engagement in daily life were positively associated with better cognitive status across different age ranges. In particular, differences in the individuals’ cognitive abilities across the four active latent classes were especially obvious in the old-old group as follows: the Comprehensive-active class had higher general cognitive and recall abilities than the other three active classes and higher calculation and language abilities than the Working-active class. In addition, significant sex differences were observed in activity patterns, cognition, and their associations in the young-old and old-old groups. Culture-specific programs should be customized to subgroups of different ages and genders by providing different training or activity modules based on their related dimensions of cognitive decline.

Regular Tai Chi Practice Is Associated With Improved Memory as Well as Structural and Functional Alterations of the Hippocampus in the Elderly

OBJECTIVE

The current study aimed at comparing the effects of Tai Chi (a motor-cognitive exercise) with walking (an exercise without cognitive demands) on cognitive performance, brain structure, and brain function in the elderly.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 42 healthy elderly women within two groups: Tai Chi (n = 20; mean age = 62.90 ± 2.38 years) and brisk walking exercise (n = 22; mean age = 63.27 ± 3.58 years). All the participants underwent a cognitive assessment via the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and brain structural and resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI) assessments.

RESULTS

Episodic memory in the Tai Chi group was superior to that of the walking group. Higher gray matter density in the inferior and medial temporal regions (including the hippocampus) and higher ReHo in temporal regions (specifically the fusiform gyrus and hippocampus) were found in the Tai Chi group. Significant partial correlations were found between the gray matter density of the left hippocampus and episodic memory in the whole sample. Significant partial correlations were observed between the ReHo in left hippocampus, left parahippocampal, left fusiform, and delayed memory task, which was observed among all subjects.

CONCLUSION

The present study suggests that long-term Tai Chi practice may improve memory performance via remodeling the structure and function of the hippocampus.

Altered Brain Functional Connectivity Density in Fast-Ball Sports Athletes With Early Stage of Motor Training

The human brain shows neuroplastic adaptations caused by motor skill training. Of note, there is little known about the plastic architecture of the whole-brain network in resting state. The purpose of the present study was to detect how motor training affected the density distribution of whole-brain resting-state functional connectivity (FC). Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data was assessed based on a comparison of fast-ball student athletes (SA) and non-athlete healthy controls (NC). The voxel-wise data-driven graph theory approach, global functional connectivity density (gFCD) mapping, was applied. Results showed that the SA group exhibited significantly decreased gFCD in brain regions centered at the left triangular part of the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), extending to the opercular part of the left IFG and middle frontal gyrus compared to the NC group. In addition, findings suggested the idea of an increased neural efficiency of athletes’ brain regions associated with attentional–motor modulation and executive control. Furthermore, behavioral results showed that in the SA group, faster executive control reaction time relates to smaller gFCD values in the left IFG. These findings suggested that the motor training would decrease the numbers of FC in IFG to accelerate the executive control with high attentional demands and enable SA to rapidly focus the attention to detect the intriguing target.