Nutrition label processing in the past 10 years: Contributions from eye tracking approach

Do health warning labels on alcohol packaging attract visual attention? A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

To synthesize eye-tracking-based evidence on consumers' visual attention devoted to alcohol warning labels (AWLs) on alcohol packaging.

STUDY DESIGN

A systematic review was conducted and reported in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines.

METHODS

Two rounds of a literature search were conducted to identify relevant peer-reviewed articles and unpublished grey literature. While the first round (July 3 to August 21, 2023) was based on three electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and PsycINFO), the second round (May 20 to 28, 2024) followed a multiple-step protocol that systematically searched the grey literature. Five criteria were applied to screen eligible articles. Using established quality control tools, the identified articles were assessed for overall quality and then for quality specific to the eye-tracking method.

RESULTS

Six published peer-reviewed articles were thus included in the current review along with one unpublished research paper from a doctoral thesis. This review paper summarizes earlier findings in terms of bottom-up (i.e., AWL design-related) factors such as size, color, surrounding border, and pictorial elements, and top-down (i.e., goal-driven) factors such as motivation to change drinking behavior and self-affirmation. The review found that people tend to pay very little attention to AWLs displayed on alcohol packaging, although there is mixed evidence as to the effectiveness of specific factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Further investigations using eye-tracking are needed to collect additional evidence on attention devoted to AWLs. Meanwhile, we put forward implications for policymakers and future avenues for research based on our review of the existing literature.

Visual communication design: a neglected factor in nutrition promotion via packaged food labels

Packaging design is a communication device and a critical component in branding strategy, and has relevance for food policy. Presently, packaging-related nutrition policy initiatives focus on the role of regulated claims, nutrition information panels and front-of-pack nutrition labels to help guide consumer food choices and address high prevalences of discretionary and ultra-processed food consumption in many countries. However, these nutrition labelling systems are not optimized as public health policy tools as many consumers do not use them to inform their food choices. Visual communication design theory posits that a designer orders the elements and principles of design into hierarchies that prioritize certain elements over others, and that some of these elements are more dominant and given more emphasis than others. The overall design of the package thereby directs consumer attention to some aspects of pack design (e.g., characters, contents of the package) and away from others (e.g., nutrition details). Dual processing frameworks propose that food decisions are made with the interplay between automatic and rational thinking processes. Packaging designs affect whether consumers rely predominantly on automatic or rational thinking to select a food. This narrative review outlines the role of food packaging design and how it impacts the clear communication of nutrition aspects of food products and how the use of nutrition information by consumers to make decisions may depend upon design structures in packaging. This article attests that nutrition scientists and policy makers should incorporate visual communication design into research on the food packaging as a public health promotion tool. A stronger focus on the communication of regulated front-of-pack nutrition information can be made with a re-evaluation of the hierarchy of elements in the front-of-pack design enabling consumers to make healthier decisions.

The neural model of front-of-package label processing

Front-of-package (FOP) labels have been adopted in many countries to battle the obesity pandemic and its serious health consequences by providing clearer and easier-to-understand nutrition and health information. The effectiveness of FOP labels has been generally confirmed, with some contextual and individual factors modifying their effectiveness. Existing theories (eg, the dual-process theory) and shifting priorities for self-control, provide some explanations for the FOP label effect. However, the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying the processing of FOP labels remain unknown. Here, a new model, namely, the neural model of FOP label processing, has been proposed to fill this gap by providing an integrated account of FOP label processing while simultaneously considering multiple important situational and individual factors in the same framework. This neural model is built on the core eating network (ie, the ventral reward pathway and the dorsal control pathway) for food cue processing and actual food consumption. The new model explains how FOP labels may facilitate attention, influence the core eating network, and thus alter food choices. It also demonstrates how motivation may modify FOP label processing in 2 ways: affecting attention (the indirect way) and changing the process of evaluating the food (the direct way). It further explains how some contextual and individual factors (eg, ego depletion, time pressure, and health knowledge) influence the process. Thus, the neural model integrates evidence from behavioral, eye-tracking, and neuroimaging studies into a single, integrated account, deepening understanding of the cognitive and neural mechanisms of FOP label processing. This model might facilitate consensus on the most successful FOP label. Moreover, it could provide insights for consumers, food industries, and policy makers and encourage healthy eating behaviors.

Appeal rating and visual attention associated with youth-appealing cannabis packaging: An eye-tracking experiment

BACKGROUND

Cannabis-infused edibles have grown in popularity particularly among young people in the United States. Youth-appealing cannabis packaging is common and associated with concerns on its public health impacts. This study aims to assess associations of youth-appealing cannabis edible package attributes with appeal ratings and visual attention of young adults.

METHODS

Seventy-two young adults participated in an eye-tracking experiment, in which each participant viewed seven randomly ordered cannabis edible package images with varying youth-appealing attributes, including a cartoon character, a young adult model, bubble font, berry flavor, and gummy bear shape. Two primary outcomes were assessed: 1) appeal ratings elicited on a scale from 0 to 10 based on self-reporting, and 2) fixation durations on predefined areas of interest in the package images based on eye-tracking data. Multivariate linear regressions were conducted to assess associations.

RESULTS

Packages containing a cartoon character, bubble font, berry flavor, or gummy bear shape received higher appeal ratings than the package with no youth-appealing attributes. Youth-appealing attributes received longer fixation durations than non-youth-appealing attributes. The presence of any youth-appealing attribute is associated with reduced fixation durations on the warning label, with the largest reduction in the package with multiple youth-appealing attributes.

CONCLUSIONS

Youth-appealing attributes on cannabis edible packages are associated with higher appeal ratings, more visual attention towards those attributes, and less visual attention towards warning labels among young adults in the United States. Regulations banning youth-appealing attributes may be effective in reducing appeal of cannabis edibles and increasing attention towards warning labels.

How Interdisciplinary Interventions Can Improve the Educational Process of Children Regarding the Nutritional Labeling of Foods

This research aimed to evaluate the effect of interdisciplinary educational interventions on children's attitudes, knowledge, preferences, and perceptions about different nutrition labels. Four hundred and ten elementary school children, aged between seven and ten years, participated in the research. The children completed questionnaires on attitudes, knowledge, and preferences about nutrition labeling and on perceived healthiness of a food product considering different types of nutrition labels (Pre-Intervention). They then participated in educational interventions as a strategy to address nutrition labeling of foods (Intervention). Finally, the Pre-Intervention questionnaires were reapplied (Post-Intervention). The intervention improved children's attitudes and knowledge about nutrition labeling. It also showed that this public has a greater preference for labels printed on the front of the food package. The label in the form of a warning was considered the most favorable for comparing the healthiness of the food product among children, while the table was the least preferred. It is concluded that interdisciplinary educational interventions are effective in improving children's attitudes, knowledge, preferences, and perceptions about different nutrition labels on a food product. The front label model is the most suitable for food packaging aimed at children.

Development of nutrition label use scale for patients of coronary heart disease and examination of its reliability and validity

Background

A proper evaluation on the intention of using nutrition label in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) is crucial to design and formulate of behavior-based interventions. A valid and reliable instrument based on theoretical basis is needed to measure individual intention toward nutrition label use and identify underlying socio-cognitive factors.

Object

To develop and test validity and reliability of the theoretically based nutrition label use (NLU) scale and to promote the use of nutrition labels in CHD patients.

Methods

A questionnaire was developed based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB), empirical literatures, expert review and pilot tested. A total of 460 CHD patients in a hospital in Changsha were investigated using this questionnaire from April 2021 to August 2021. The items and dimensions in the scale were explored and confirmed using item-analysis, content validity, exploratory factor analytical (EFA), confirmatory factor analytical (CFA), internal consistency and split-half reliability tests.

Results

A total of 33 items with 4 structural factors were identified, including 10 items of attitude, 6 items of subjective norm, 12 items of perceived behavior control, and 5 items of intention. The total variance explained by the EFA model was 68.563%. The model was further tested with CFA. The measurement model fitted the data well (Ratio of chi-square minimum and degree of freedom (CMIN/DF) =1.743, goodness of fit index (GFI) =0.814, incremental fit index (IFI) =0.946, Tuker-Lewis index (TLI) =0.940, the comparative fit index (CFI) =0.945, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) =0.057). The content validation index (CVI) of the scale was 0.82, and the CVI of the items ranged from 0.8 to 1.00. The reliability of the scale was 0.976 (p < 0 0.001) using Cronbach's alpha and 0.937 (p < 0.001) using the split-half coefficient.

Conclusion

The newly developed Nutrition Label Use Scale can serve as a valid and reliable tool to evaluate the nutrition label use of CHD patients.

Advantages of graphical nutrition facts label: faster attention capture and improved healthiness judgement

Consumers have to rely on the traditional back-of-package nutrition facts label (NFL) to obtain nutrition information in many countries. However, traditional NFLs have been criticised for their poor visualisation and low efficiency. This study redesigned back-of-package NFLs integrated with bar graphs (black or coloured) to visually indicate nutrient reference values (NRVs). Two eye movement studies were performed to evaluate the ergonomic advantages of the graphical NFLs. Our findings suggested that the newly designed NFLs led to faster and better healthiness evaluation performance. The newly designed graphical labels led to a shorter time to first fixation duration and offered a higher percentage of fixation time in the nutrient reference values region compared with that observed using traditional text labels. Nowadays, many chronic diseases are associated with poor eating habits, therefore, the importance of visualisation design to nudge healthier food choices could be paid more attention to by policymakers and food manufacturers.Practitioner summary: To improve the ergonomic design of traditional nutrition facts panel (NFL), this study assessed a newly designed graphical NFL. The results showed that graphical NFL captured consumers' attention faster and improved their healthiness judgement. Moreover, a brief nutrition education can improve consumers' attention and understanding of nutrition information.

Application of selected neuroscientific methods in consumer sensory analysis: A review

Neuromarketing or consumer neuroscience is a relatively new market research subdiscipline that has gained popularity among consumer behavior scientists in the past two decades or so. It combines neurobiology with behavioral psychology to understand consumer behavior, more specifically about their decisions related to choices/preferences and purchase. The purpose of this review is to explore the potential of using neuroscientific methods for consumer sensory science research. By no means, this is an exhaustive review hindered by the fact that there are countless articles on neuromarketing and consumer neuroscience in the literature. The author has tried to show the applicability of neuroscientific methods in consumer sensory sciences, specifically electroencephalography and eye tracking, which could potentially "complement" the sensory methodologies to gain better consumer insight. Both these techniques are relatively inexpensive, portable, and minimally invasive techniques that are already being used by some sensory scientists. They could be incorporated with ease in the research portfolio of consumer sensory researchers who would like to use them to study consumer affect. It is recommended that the researchers use proper experimental design that takes into consideration the confounding variables as much as possible. The two methods mentioned before have been proven to be relatively reliable and repeatable. Lastly, these methods would also require ethical oversight because of the involvement of human subjects.

Food word processing in Chinese reading: A study of restrained eaters

Food-related attentional bias refers that individuals typically prioritize rewarding food-related cues (e.g. food words and food images) compared with non-food stimuli; however, the findings are inconsistent for restrained eaters. Traditional paradigms used to test food-related attentional bias, such as visual probe tasks and visual search tasks, may not directly and accurately enough to reflect individuals' food-word processing at different cognitive stages. In this study, we introduced the boundary paradigm to investigate food-word attentional bias for both restrained and unrestrained eaters. Eye movements were recorded when they performed a naturalistic sentence-reading task. The results of later-stage analyses showed that food words were fixated on for less time than non-food words, which indicated a superiority of foveal food-word processing for both restrained and unrestrained eaters. The results of early-stage analyses showed that restrained eaters spent more time on pre-target regions in the food-word valid preview conditions, which indicated a parafoveal food-word processing superiority for restrained eaters (i.e. the parafoveal-on-foveal effect). The superiority of foveal food-word processing provides new insights into explaining food-related attentional bias in general groups. Additionally, the enhanced food-word attentional bias in parafoveal processing for restrained eaters illustrates the importance of individual characteristics in studying word recognition.

Eating contexts determine the efficacy of nutrient warning labels to promote healthy food choices

Introduction

Unhealthy food choices increase the risk of obesity and its co-morbidities. Nutrition labels are a public health policy that aims to drive individuals toward healthier food choices. Chile has been an example of this policy, where mandatory nutrient warning labels (NWL) identify processed foods high in calories and critical nutrients. Eating contexts influence individual food choices, but whether eating contexts also influence how NWL alter the decision process and selection during food choice is unknown.

Methods

In an online mouse-tracking study, participants prompted to health, typical, or unrestricted eating contexts were instructed to choose between pairs of foods in the presence or absence of NWL. Conflict during choices was analyzed using mouse paths and reaction times.

Results

NWL increased conflict during unhealthy food choices and reduced conflict during healthy choices in all contexts. However, the probability that NWL reversed an unhealthy choice was 80% in a healthy, 37% in a typical, and 19% in an unrestricted context. A drift-diffusion model analysis showed the effects of NWL on choice were associated with an increased bias toward healthier foods in the healthy and typical but not in the unrestricted context.

Discussion

These data suggest that the efficacy of NWL to drive healthy food choices increases in a healthy eating context, whereas NWL are less effective in typical or unrestricted eating contexts.

Dynamic attentional bias for pictorial and textual food cues in the visual search paradigm

Previous studies have found that individuals have an attentional bias for food cues, which may be related to the energy level or the type of stimulus (e.g., pictorial or textual food cues) of the food cues. However, the available evidence is inconsistent, and there is no consensus about how the type of stimulus and food energy modulate food-related attentional bias. Searching for food is one of the most important daily behaviors. In this study, a modified visual search paradigm was used to explore the attentional bias for food cues, and eye movements were recorded. Food cues consisted of both food words and food pictures with different energy levels (i.e., high- and low-calorie foods). The results showed that there was an attentional avoidance in the early stage but a later-stage attentional approach for all food cues in the pictorial condition. This was especially true for high-calorie food pictures. Participants showed a later-stage conflicting attentional bias for foods with different energy levels in the textual condition. They showed an attentional approach to high-calorie food words but an attentional avoidance of low-calorie food words. These data show that food-related attentional bias varied along with different time courses, which was also modulated by the type of stimulus and food energy. These findings regarding dynamic attentional bias could be explained using the Goal Conflict Model of eating behavior.

A systematic review of the prediction of consumer preference using EEG measures and machine-learning in neuromarketing research

Introduction

The present paper discusses the findings of a systematic review of EEG measures in neuromarketing, identifying which EEG measures are the most robust predictor of customer preference in neuromarketing. The review investigated which TF effect (e.g., theta-band power), and ERP component (e.g., N400) was most consistently reflective of self-reported preference. Machine-learning prediction also investigated, along with the use of EEG when combined with physiological measures such as eye-tracking.

Methods

Search terms ‘neuromarketing’ and ‘consumer neuroscience’ identified papers that used EEG measures. Publications were excluded if they were primarily written in a language other than English or were not published as journal articles (e.g., book chapters). 174 papers were included in the present review.

Results

Frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) was the most reliable TF signal of preference and was able to differentiate positive from negative consumer responses. Similarly, the late positive potential (LPP) was the most reliable ERP component, reflecting conscious emotional evaluation of products and advertising. However, there was limited consistency across papers, with each measure showing mixed results when related to preference and purchase behaviour.

Conclusions and implications

FAA and the LPP were the most consistent markers of emotional responses to marketing stimuli, consumer preference and purchase intention. Predictive accuracy of FAA and the LPP was greatly improved through the use of machine-learning prediction, especially when combined with eye-tracking or facial expression analyses.

Sensory Appeal and Routines Beat Health Messages and Visibility Enhancements: Mixed-Methods Analysis of a Choice-Architecture Intervention in a Workplace Cafeteria

Easier recognition and enhanced visibility of healthy options supposedly increase healthy choices, but real-world evidence remains scarce. Addressing this knowledge gap, we promoted nutritionally favourable foods in a workplace cafeteria with three choice-architectural strategies-priming posters, point-of-choice nutrition labels, and improved product placement-and assessed their effects on visual attention, food choices, and food consumption. Additionally, we developed a method for analysing real-world eye-tracking data. The study followed a pretest-posttest design whereby control and intervention condition lasted five days each. We monitored visual attention (i.e., total number and duration of fixations) and food choices with eye tracking, interviewed customers about perceived influences on food choices, and measured cafeteria-level food consumption (g). Individual-level data represents 22 control and 19 intervention participants recruited at the cafeteria entrance. Cafeteria-level data represents food consumption during the trial (556/589 meals sold). Results indicated that the posters and labels captured participants' visual attention (~13% of fixations on defined areas of interest before food choices), but the intervention had insignificant effects on visual attention to foods, on food choices, and on food consumption. Interviews revealed 17 perceived influences on food choices, the most common being sensory appeal, healthiness, and familiarity. To conclude, the intervention appeared capable of attracting visual attention, yet ineffective in increasing healthier eating. The developed method enabled a rigorous analysis of visual attention and food choices in a natural choice setting. We discuss ways to boost the impact of the intervention on behaviour, considering target groups' motives. The work contributes with a unique, mixed-methods approach and a real-world setting that enabled a multi-dimensional effects evaluation with high external validity.

Do Individuals Use Nutrition Labels on Food Packages to Make Healthy Choices? Testing the Dual-Process Model in Two Laboratory-Based Experiments

Nutrition labels on food packages are designed to assist consumers in making healthy decisions. Based on the model of a dual-process system, the current study examined how people might be affected by nutrition labels and consuming contexts when making choices about healthy foods. Using four types of nutrition labels (i.e., the NuVal label, 5-Color nutrition label, traffic light label, and daily value label), participants were instructed to choose the healthier foods with or without time constraints in two experiments. In Experiment 1, participants were presented with pairs of foods accompanied by the same type of nutrition labels to measure the efficiency of their health evaluation. In Experiment 2, two types of labels with inconsistent nutritional information were presented to participants simultaneously to measure their preference regarding the nutrition labels. Findings of the current study support the notion that the traffic light label is advantageous in terms of both the efficiency of, and preferences regarding, nutrition judgment, especially with time constraints. When there was only one type of nutrition label, participants made decisions fastest and most accurately when observing the NuVal label, regardless of time constraints. Overall, the reliable interactions between the time constraints and patterns of nutrition labels have theoretical implications for the appeal-based heuristics and rational-based processing when making health-related food decisions.

Analysis of Sodium Content in 4082 Kinds of Commercial Foods in China

High-sodium intake is associated with the increased risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Monitoring and analyzing the sodium content in commercial food is instructive for reducing sodium intake in the general population. The sodium content of 4082 commercial foods across 12 food groups and 41 food categories was collected and analyzed, including 4030 pre-packaged foods and 52 artisanal foods. The food group with the highest average sodium content (6888.6 mg/100 g) contained sauces, dressings, springs and dips, followed by bean products (1326.1 mg/100 g) and fish, meat and egg products (1302.1 mg/100 g). The average sodium content of all the collected commercial foods was 1018.6 mg/100 g. Meanwhile, the sodium content of non-alcoholic beverages (49.7 mg/100 g), confectionery (111.8 mg/100 g) and dairy products (164.1 mg/100 g) was much lower than the average sodium content of the 12 food groups. The sodium contents of different food groups and categories were significantly different. The proportion of high-sodium food (600 mg/100 g) was more than one-third of all the products. There are a few products marked with salt reduction on the package. Sixteen salt-reduced products were collected, which belong to the food category of soy sauce and account for 16% of all the soy sauce products. The average sodium content in salt-reduced soy sauce is 2022.8 mg/100 g lower than that of non-salt-reduced soy sauce products. These data provide a primary assessment with sodium content in commercial foods and potential improvements for the food industry to achievement the goal of sodium reduction.

Development and Validity of a General Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire (GNKQ) for Chinese Adults

Nutrition knowledge refers to understanding concepts and processes related to nutrition and health, proven to be an essential determinant of healthy eating. However, partially due to the lack of nutrition knowledge and unhealthy eating patterns, more and more Chinese people face overweight, obesity, and a high risk of suffering from various chronic diseases. This study aimed to develop a general nutritional knowledge questionnaire (GNKQ) in a Chinese context to diagnose and improve nutrition knowledge education for Chinese people. The newly adapted questionnaire was based on the Turkey version of GNKQ, and absorbed dietary recommendations in a Chinese context. It was first validated by four nutrition experts, then tested by eleven volunteers (one public nutritionist, one preventive medicine graduate student, and nine psychology graduate students). Finally, the questionnaire was tested by 278 participants, including 175 adults, to determine internal consistency, content validity, and convergent validity. Moreover, the construct validity was evaluated by comparing the differences between 50 students in nutrition-related majors and 53 students in nutrition-unrelated majors. The final Chinese version of GNKQ kept 32 questions with 68 items after deleting some questions based on item difficulty and discrimination. The data showed that the overall internal consistency coefficient was 0.885, and the test-retest reliability was 0.769, p < 0.001. Students majoring in nutrition had larger scores than in nutrition-unrelated majors. The convergent validity for each demographic variable was consistent with previous studies, such as larger nutrition knowledge scores for females and those with a higher education. Therefore, the revised Chinese version of GNKQ showed good reliability and validity, indicating that it could be an effective tool to assess the nutrition knowledge of Chinese adults.

The Impact of Responsible Food Packaging Perceptions on Naturalness and Healthiness Inferences, and Consumer Buying Intentions

The research presented in this article examines the relationship between consumer perceptions that a food package is responsible (sustainable) and consumers’ intention to purchase the product that it contains. On the basis of the relevant literature, a conceptual model is proposed where this relationship is hypothesized to be mediated by two variables: the product’s perceived naturalness and healthiness. A first study was conducted with the objective of developing a scale with good psychometric properties to measure the perceived naturalness of a food product. The objective of the second study was to test the validity of the two-mediator conceptual model. The results show that the extent to which a food product package is seen as responsible (i.e., recyclable, reusable, compostable) has a positive and statistically significant impact on consumers’ intention to buy it, and that it is through the sequential mediation of the product’s perceived naturalness and healthiness that this relationship unfolds.

Eye-tracking research on sensory and consumer science: A review, pitfalls and future directions

Visual processing is a core cognitive element of sensory and consumer science. Consumers visually attend to food types, packaging, label design, advertisements, supermarket shelves, food menus, and other visible information. During the past decade, sensory and consumer science have used eye tracking to elucidate visual processing by consumers. This review paper summarizes earlier findings in terms of bottom-up (i.e., stimulus-driven) processing such as visual salience, size, and top-down (i.e., goal-driven) processing such as goals, task instructions, task complexity, and emotions. Downstream effects of gaze on choice are also reviewed. Pitfalls and future directions of eye-tracking research on sensory and consumer science are also discussed.

Sounds Healthy: Modelling sound-evoked consumer food choice through visual attention

Food choice is a multifaceted construct that is not solely guided by our internal incentives. In fact, sensory scientist, consumer psychologists, and marketers have demonstrated that external ambient cues, including background music, can influence myriads of subconscious consumer behaviors, effectively leading to increased sales of food and beverages. However, the vast majority of literature in on this topic has thus far been confined to monocultural field studies in which the underlying mechanisms of food choice are unexplored. We therefore studied the explicit and implicit effects of custom-composed soundtracks on food choices and eye-movements in consumers from both 'East' and 'West'. Firstly, based on the results from a pre-study (N = 396), we composed a 'healthy' and 'unhealthy' soundtrack. Subsequently, we recruited 215 participants from China (n = 114) and Denmark (n = 101) respectively for in an in-laboratory eye-tracking food choice paradigm. For each culture, half of the participants listened to the 'healthy' soundtrack and the other half to the 'unhealthy' soundtrack during the experiment. Chi-square tests of independence revealed that across cultures, the healthy (vs. unhealthy) soundtrack led to more healthy food choices. Similarly, the generalized linear mixed models showed that the healthy soundtrack induced more and longer fixations on healthy (vs. unhealthy) food. Finally, a multiple mediation analysis signified a partial mediation effect of sound on food choice through the mediators of fixation duration, fixation count, and revisit count. Our results indicate that, with strategically chosen soundscapes, it is possible to influence consumers' decision-making processes and guide their attention towards healthier foods, providing valuable knowledge for local as well as global food business.

Transparent Windows on Food Packaging Do Not Always Capture Attention and Increase Purchase Intention

Transparent windows on food packaging can effectively highlight the actual food inside. The present study examined whether food packaging with transparent windows (relative to packaging with food‐ and non-food graphic windows in the same position and of the same size) has more advantages in capturing consumer attention and determining consumers’ willingness to purchase. In this study, college students were asked to evaluate prepackaged foods presented on a computer screen, and their eye movements were recorded. The results showed salience effects for both packaging with transparent and food-graphic windows, which were also regulated by food category. Both transparent and graphic packaging gained more viewing time than the non-food graphic baseline condition for all the three selected products (i.e., nuts, preserved fruits, and instant cereals). However, no significant difference was found between transparent and graphic window conditions. For preserved fruits, time to first fixations was shorter in transparent packaging than other conditions. For nuts, the willingness to purchase was higher in both transparent and graphic conditions than the baseline condition, while the packaging attractiveness played a key role in mediating consumers’ willingness to purchase. The implications for stakeholders and future research directions are discussed.