Triphenyltin alters androgen metabolism in the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus

Is there potential for estradiol receptor signaling in lophotrochozoans?

Estrogen receptors (ERs) are thought to be the ancestor of all steroid receptors and are present in most lophotrochozoans studied to date, including molluscs, annelids, and rotifers. A number of studies have investigated the functional role of estrogen receptors in invertebrate species, although most are in molluscs, where the receptor is constitutively active. In vitro experiments provided evidence for ligand-activated estrogen receptors in annelids, raising important questions about the role of estrogen signalling in lophotrochozoan lineages. Here, we review the concordant and discordant evidence of estradiol receptor signalling in lophotrochozoans, with a focus on annelids and rotifers. We explore the de novo synthesis of estrogens, the evolution and expression of estrogen receptors, and physiological responses to activation of estrogen receptors in the lophotrochozoan phyla Annelida and Rotifera. Key data are missing to determine if de novo biosynthesis of estradiol in non-molluscan lophotrochozoans is likely. For example, an ortholog for the CYP11 gene is present, but confirmation of substrate conversion and measured tissue products is lacking. Orthologs CYP17 and CYP19 are lacking, yet intermediates or products (e.g. estradiol) in tissues have been measured. Estrogen receptors are present in multiple species, and for a limited number, in vitro data show agonist binding of estradiol and/or transcriptional activation. The expression patterns of the lophotrochozoan ERs suggest developmental, reproductive, and digestive roles but are highly species dependent. E2 exposures suggest that lophotrochozoan ERs may play a role in reproduction, but no strong dose-response relationship has been established. Therefore, we expect most lophotrochozoan species, outside of perhaps platyhelminths, to have an ER but their physiological role remains elusive. Mining genomes for orthologs gene families responsible for steroidogenesis, coupled with in vitro and in vivo studies of the steroid pathway are needed to better assess whether lophotrochozoans are capable of estradiol biosynthesis. One major challenge is that much of the data are divided across a diversity of species. We propose that the polychaetes Capitella teleta or Platyneris dumerilii, and rotifer Brachionus manjavacas may be strong species choices for studies of estrogen receptor signalling, because of available genomic data, established laboratory culture techniques, and gene knockout potential.

Transcriptomics reveal triphenyltin-induced molecular toxicity in the marine mussel Perna viridis

Triphenyltin (TPT) is widely used as an active ingredient in antifouling paints and fungicides, and continuous release of this highly toxic endocrine disruptor has caused serious pollution to coastal marine ecosystems and organisms worldwide. Using bioassays and transcriptome sequencing, this study comprehensively investigated the molecular toxicity of TPT chloride (TPTCl) to the marine mussel Perna viridis which is a commercially important species and a common biomonitor for marine pollution in Southeast Asia. Our results indicated that TPTCl was highly toxic to adult P. viridis, with a 96-h LC₁₀ and a 96-h EC₁₀ at 18.7 μg/L and 2.7 μg/L, respectively. A 21-day chronic exposure to 2.7 μg/L TPTCl revealed a strong bioaccumulation of TPT in gills (up to 36.48 μg/g dry weight) and hepatopancreas (71.19 μg/g dry weight) of P. viridis. Transcriptome analysis indicated a time course dependent gene expression pattern in both gills and hepatopancreas. Higher numbers of differentially expressed genes were detected at Day 21 (gills: 1686 genes; hepatopancreas: 1450 genes) and at Day 28 (gills: 628 genes; hepatopancreas: 238 genes) when compared with that at Day 7 (gills: 104 genes, hepatopancreas: 112 genes). Exposure to TPT strongly impaired the endocrine system through targeting on nuclear receptors and putative steroid metabolic genes. Moreover, TPT widely disrupted cellular functions, including lipid metabolism, xenobiotic detoxification, immune response and endoplasmic-reticulum-associated degradation expression, which might have caused the bioaccumulation of TPT in the tissues and aggregation of peptides and proteins in cells that further activated the apoptosis process in P. viridis. Overall, this study has advanced our understanding on both ecotoxicity and molecular toxic mechanisms of TPT to marine mussels, and contributed empirical toxicity data for risk assessment and management of TPT contamination.

Sex steroids and steroidogenesis-related genes in the sea cucumber, Holothuria scabra and their potential role in gonad maturation

The sea cucumber Holothuria scabra is an economically valuable marine species which is distributed throughout the Asia-Pacific region. With the natural population declining due to over fishing, aquaculture of this species is deemed necessary. Hence, it is essential to understand the mechanisms regulating the reproduction in order to increase their populations. Sex steroids, including estrogens, androgens and progestogens, play an important role in reproduction in most vertebrates and several invertebrates. It has been proposed that sea cucumbers have the same sex steroids as vertebrates but the steroidogenic pathway in the sea cucumbers is still unclear. In this study, we demonstrated by using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) that sex steroids (estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone) were present in H. scabra neural and gonadal tissues. In silico searches of available sea cucumber transcriptome data identified 26 steroidogenesis-related genes. Comparative analysis of encoded proteins for the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (HscStAR), CYP P450 10, 17 and 3A (HscCYP10, HscCYP17, HscCYP3A) and hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (Hsc3β-HSD, Hsc17β-HSD) with other species was performed to confirm their evolutionary conservation. Gene expression analyses revealed widespread tissue expression. Real-time PCR analysis revealed that HscStAR, HscCYP10, Hsc3β-HSD, and Hsc17β-HSD gene expressions were similar to those in ovaries and testes, which increased during the gonad maturation. HscCYP17 mRNA was increased during ovarian development and its expression declined at late stages in females but continued high level in males. The expression of the HscCYP3A was high at the early stages of ovarian development, but not at other later stages in ovaries, however it remained low in testes. Moreover, a role for steroids in reproduction was confirmed following the effect of sex steroids on vitellogenin (Vtg) expression in ovary explant culture, showing upregulation of Vtg level. Collectively, this study has confirmed the existence of steroids in an echinoderm, as well as characterizing key genes associated with the steroidogenic pathway. We propose that sex steroids might also be associated with the reproduction of H. scabra, and the identification of biosynthetic genes enables future functional studies to be performed.

The Echinodermata PPAR: Functional characterization and exploitation by the model lipid homeostasis regulator tributyltin

The wide ecological relevance of lipid homeostasis modulators in the environment has been increasingly acknowledged. Tributyltin (TBT), for instance, was shown to cause lipid modulation, not only in mammals, but also in fish, molluscs, arthropods and rotifers. In vertebrates, TBT is known to interact with a nuclear receptor heterodimer module, formed by the retinoid X receptor (RXR) and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR). These modulate the expression of genes involved in lipid homeostasis. In the present work, we isolated for the first time the complete coding region of the Echinodermata (Paracentrotus lividus) gene orthologues of PPAR and RXR and evaluated the ability of a model lipid homeostasis modulator, TBT, to interfere with the lipid metabolism in this species. Our results demonstrate that TBT alters the gonadal fatty acid composition and gene expression patterns: yielding sex-specific responses in fatty acid levels, including the decrease of eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5 n-3, EPA) in males, and increase of arachidonic acid (20:4n-6, ARA) in females, and upregulation of long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase (acsl), ppar and rxr. Furthermore, an in vitro test using COS-1 cells as host and chimeric receptors with the ligand binding domain (LBD) of P. lividus PPAR and RXR shows that organotins (TBT and TPT (Triphenyltin)) suppressed activity of the heterodimer PPAR/RXR in a concentration-dependent manner. Together, these results suggest that TBT acts as a lipid homeostasis modulator at environmentally relevant concentrations in Echinodermata and highlight a possible conserved mode of action via the PPAR/RXR heterodimer.

The evolutionary road to invertebrate thyroid hormone signaling: Perspectives for endocrine disruption processes

Thyroid hormones (THs) are the only iodine-containing hormones that play fundamental roles in chordates and non-chordates. The chemical nature, mode of action and the synthesis of THs are well established in mammals and other vertebrates. Although thyroid-like hormones have been detected in protostomes and non-chordate deuterostomes, TH signaling is poorly understood as compared to vertebrates, particularly in protostomes. Therefore, the central objective of this article is to review TH system components and TH-induced effects in non-vertebrate chordates, non-chordate deuterostomes and protostomes based on available genomes and functional information. To accomplish this task, we integrate here the available knowledge on the THs signaling across non-vertebrate chordates, non-chordate deuterostomes and protostomes by considering studies encompassing TH system components and physiological actions of THs. We also address the possible interactions of thyroid disrupting chemicals and their effects in protostomes and non-chordate deuterostomes. Finally, the perspectives on current and future challenges are discussed.

Effects of triphenyltin on reproduction in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) across two generations

Triphenyltin (TPT) is an organotin compound used in marine anti-fouling coatings to prevent the attachment and growth of marine organisms, and it has negative effects on aquatic organisms. TPT is still detected at low concentrations, although its use has been prohibited at least in the European Community and is restricted in Japan as well. Studies using Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) indicate that TPT has the potential to inhibit reproduction. Although TPT is detected in many aquatic ecosystems, the multi-generational impact of TPT remains unknown. We investigated the two-generational effects of TPT on Japanese medaka and examined the relationships of several such effects between the F0 and F1 generations. Suppression of fecundity was observed in both generations, and fertility and growth were inhibited in the F1 generation. Moreover, delayed hatching and lower hatchability were observed in F1 embryos. Importantly, the value of the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) for these influences in F1 was lower than that in F0: that is, the LOEC values of fecundity and mortality were 3.2μg/L in the F0 generation and 1.0μg/L in the F1 generation. Fertility was not affected by TPT in F0, whereas it was significantly suppressed in the 1.0μg/L-exposure group of the F1 generation. Our results provide the first evidence of the effects of TPT on reproduction in a teleost fish across two generations, highlighting the concern that TPT could affect reproduction and mortality at decreasing concentrations in temporally overlapping generations.

The endocrine-disrupting effect and other physiological responses of municipal effluent on the clam Ruditapes decussatus

In order to document the potential endocrine disrupting and toxic effect of the municipal wastewater effluents discharged into the Sfax coastal area (South of Tunisia), specimens of clam R. decussatus were collected from a reference site and were in vivo exposed to treated sewage effluent for 30 days. To this end, estrogenic and androgenic activities were measured in the gills to assess potential accumulation and regulation of active compounds. After effluent exposure androgenic activity in organic extracts increased up to fivefold compared to controls and remained elevated, while estrogenic activity was not significantly affected by exposure. As a consequence, remarkable disruptions in the gametogenesis activity, glycogen content, and Vitellogenin-like protein levels in male clams were observed. A parallel analysis of heavy metals in clam tissues was determined. A significant uptake of Ni, Zn, and Pb in soft tissues of exposed clams was observed. The significant increase of malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations as a function of exposure time implies that clams have been exposed to an oxidative stress probably due to the presence of high metal concentrations in sewage effluent. Correlation analysis has revealed a statistically significant and positive relationship between MDA levels and metal concentrations in clams' tissues. The acetylcholinesterase activity was not significantly affected by exposure. Altogether, these results showed that a short-term exposure to a mixture of chemical compounds released by the Sfax wastewater treatment plant induce adverse physiological and reproductive effects in R. decussatus. Further studies are underway in order to evaluate its long-term impacts on aquatic wildlife in the gulf of Gabes area.

Unraveling estradiol metabolism and involvement in the reproductive cycle of non-vertebrate animals: The sea urchin model

Estradiol (E2) is a well-known hormone in vertebrates whereas in invertebrates its unambiguous presence was verified only in some species. Weather this presence is also associated to similarly conserved roles in animal phylogeny is similarly uncertain. Due to their phylogenetic position, echinoderms represent ideal experimental models to provide evolutionary insights into estrogen appearance and function. Therefore, in this research, we investigated if E2 is truly present and has a role in the reproductive biology of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. Presence of 17β estradiol in body fluids was confirmed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. By immunological methods (RIA) we evaluated the physiological circulating E2 levels of adult specimens and, on the basis of these, we directly administered E2 to study its metabolism and its putative effects on gonad development at physiological doses. Although different E2 tested concentrations, a correspondent dose-dependent increase of hormone levels was not found in both body fluids and gonads, suggesting the presence of potent homeostatic/detoxification mechanisms. These latter do not involve enzymes such as aromatase-like, sulfotransferase-like and acyltransferase-like, whose activities were not affected by E2 administration. Despite the increase of endogenous E2, the treatment did not induce significant variations in none of the considered reproductive parameters. Overall, this research (1) provides definitive evidence of E2 presence in sea urchin tissues and (2) demonstrate that, differently from vertebrates and starfish, E2 does not play a key role in sea urchins reproductive processes. Intra-phylum differences suggest the existence of class-specific hormonal mechanisms and highlight the risk of Phylum generalization.

Effects of methyltestosterone, letrozole, triphenyltin and fenarimol on histology of reproductive organs of the copepod Acartia tonsa

The marine calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa was exposed to methyltestosterone (MET, 1.6-126 μg L(-1)), letrozole (LET, 10-1000 μg L(-1)), triphenyltin chloride (TPT, 0.0014-0.0088 μg L(-1) TPT-Sn) and fenarimol (FEN, 2.8-105 μg L(-1)) for 21 d covering a full life-cycle. All four compounds investigated are known to act as androgens in vertebrates. The digestive tract, musculature, nervous system, reproductive organs, gonad and accessory sexual glands were examined by light microscopy after routine staining and immune-labelling for detection of apoptosis and determination of proliferation activities. MET induced an inhibition of oogenesis, oocyte maturation and yolk formation, respectively, which was most pronounced at the lowest concentrations tested. In LET exposed males, spermatogenesis was enhanced with very prominent gamete stages; in some stages apoptosis occurred. The spermatophore was hypertrophied and displayed deformations. In females, LET induced a disorder of oogenesis and disturbances in yolk synthesis. TPT stimulated the male reproductive system at 0.0014 and 0.0035 μg TPT-SnL(-1), whereas inhibiting effects were observed in the female gonad at 0.0088 μg TPT-SnL(-1). In FEN exposed females proliferation of gametes was reduced and yolk formation showed irregular features at 2.8-105 μgL(-1). In FEN exposed males an elevated proliferation activity was observed. No pathological alterations in other organ systems, e.g. the digestive tract including the hindgut acting as respiratory organ, the nervous system, or the musculature were seen. This indicates that the effects on gonads might be caused rather by disturbance of endocrine signalling or interference with hormone metabolism than by general toxicity.

Early life developmental effects of marine persistent organic pollutants on the sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris

A new 16-day echinoid early life stage (ELS) bioassay was developed to allow for prolonged observation of possible adverse effects during embryogenesis and larval development of the sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris. Subsequently, the newly developed bioassay was applied to study the effects of key marine persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Mortality, morphological abnormalities and larval development stages were quantified at specific time points during the 16-day experimental period. In contrast to amphibians and fish, P. miliaris early life development was not sensitive to dioxin-like toxicity in the prolonged early life stage test. Triclosan (TCS) levels higher than 500 nM were acutely toxic during embryo development. Morphological abnormalities were induced at concentrations higher than 50 nM hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and 1000 nM tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA). Larval development was delayed above 25 nM HBCD and 500 nM TBBPA. Heptadecafluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) exposure slightly accelerated larval development at 9 days post-fertilization (dpf). However, the accelerated development was no longer observed at the end of the test period (16 dpf). The newly developed 16-day echinoid ELS bioassay proved to be sensitive to toxic effects of POPs that can be monitored for individual echinoid larvae. The most sensitive and dose related endpoint was the number of developmental penalty points. By manipulation of the housing conditions, the reproductive season could be extended from 3 to 9 months per year and the ELS experiments could be performed in artificial sea water as well.

Elucidating the mechanism of action of tributyltin (TBT) in zebrafish

Tributyltin (TBT), an antifouling agent, has been implicated in the masculinization of fish species worldwide, but the masculinizing mechanism is not fully understood. We have examined the actions of TBT as an endocrine disruptor in zebrafish (Danio rerio). In HeLa cells transiently co-transfected with plasmid constructs containing the zebrafish estrogen receptors (zfERα, zfERβ(1) and zfERβ(2)) and the zebrafish estrogen response element (zfERE-tk-luc), ethinyl estradiol (EE2) induced luciferase activity 4 to 6-fold and was inhibited by TBT. In HeLa cells transiently co-transfected with the zebrafish androgen receptor (zfAR) and the murine androgen receptor response element (ARE-slp-luc), testosterone induced luciferase activity was not inhibited by TBT. In HeLa cells co-transfected with zfERα, zfERβ(1) and zfERβ(2) and a plasmid containing zebrafish aromatase (zfCyp19b-luc), TBT inhibited luciferase activity. In zebrafish exposed to 1mg/kg and 5mg/kg TBT in vivo, there was a increase in liver sulfotransferase and a decrease acyl-CoA testosterone acyltransferase activity. Real-time PCR analysis of sexual differentiation markers in fish exposed to TBT in vivo revealed a tissue-specific response. In brain there was increased production of Sox9, Dax1, and SF1 mRNA, an androgenizing effect, while in the liver there was increased production of Dax1, Cyp19a and zfERβ(1) mRNA but decreased production of Sox9 mRNA, a feminizing effect. In the gonads there was increased production of zfERα and zfCyp19a mRNA, again a feminizing effect. TBT has an overall masculinizing effect but the masculinizing effect is tempered by a feminizing effect on gene transcription in certain tissues. These results are discussed in the context of TBT as an endocrine disruptor in zebrafish.

Obesogens

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The environmental obesogen hypothesis postulates chemical pollutants that are able to promote obesity by altering homeostatic metabolic set-points, disrupting appetite controls, perturbing lipid homeostasis to promote adipocyte hypertrophy, or stimulating adipogenic pathways that enhance adipocyte hyperplasia during development or in adults. This review focuses on recent experimental advances for candidate obesogens that target nuclear hormone receptors when a direct link between exposure, modulation of transcriptional networks and adipogenic phenotypes can be rationalized.

RECENT FINDINGS

Various endocrine disrupting chemicals can disrupt hormonal signaling relevant to adipose tissue biology. In this review, progress on one identified obesogen, the organotin tributyltin, will be outlined to highlight principles and novel insights into its high-affinity nuclear hormone receptor-mediated mechanism, its effects on adipocyte biology, its potential to promote long-term obesogenic changes and its epidemiological relevance. When appropriate, important results for other suspected obesogenic ligands, including bisphenol A, phthalates, polybrominated diphenyl ethers and perfluoro-compounds, will highlight corroborating principles.

SUMMARY

These examples serve to provide perspective on the potential harm that man-made obesogenic pollutants pose to human health, focus attention on areas in which knowledge remains inadequate and prompt a re-evaluation of the causative risk factors driving the current changes in obesity rates.

Chemical fate and biological effects of several endocrine disrupters compounds in two echinoderm species

Two echinoderm species, the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus and the feather star Antedon mediterranea, were exposed for 28 days to several EDCs: three putative androgenic compounds, triphenyltin (TPT), fenarimol (FEN), methyltestosterone (MET), and two putative antiandrogenic compounds, p,p'-DDE (DDE) and cyproterone acetate (CPA). The exposure nominal concentrations were from 10 to 3000 ng L(-1), depending on the compound. This paper is an attempt to join three different aspects coming from our ecotoxicological tests: (1) the chemical behaviour inside the experimental system; (2) the measured toxicological endpoints; (3) the biochemical responses, to which the measured endpoints may depend. The chemical fate of the different compounds was enquired by a modelling approach throughout the application of the 'Aquarium model'. An estimation of the day-to-day concentration levels in water and biota were obtained together with the amount assumed each day by each animal (uptake in microg animal(-1) d(-1) or ng g-wet weight(-1) d(-1)). The toxicological endpoints investigated deal with the reproductive potential (gonad maturation stage, gonad index and oocyte diameter) and with the regenerative potential (growth and histology). Almost all the compounds exerted some kind of effect at the tested concentrations, however TPT was the most effective in altering both reproductive and regenerative parameters (also at the concentration of few ng L(-1)). The biochemical analyses of testosterone (T) and 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) also showed the ability of the selected compounds to significantly alter endogenous steroid concentrations.

Comparative study on the metabolism of the androgen precursor androstenedione in two gastropod species: in vitro alterations by TBT and TPT

A comparative study was performed to assess the metabolism of the androgen precursor androstenedione (AD) in two gastropod species from the Muricidae family: Bolinus brandaris and Hexaplex trunculus. AD was mainly converted to 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone by microsomal fractions isolated from Bolinus brandaris, whereas it was primarily metabolized to testosterone by Hexaplex trunculus. Sex differences in the metabolism of AD were only detected in Bolinus brandaris and attributed to higher 5alpha-reductase activity in males. Thereafter, the effect of the organotin compounds, tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT), on the metabolism of AD was investigated. A significant interference was only detected in females, and differences between the modes of action of the two compounds were observed: TPT was a strong inhibitor of 5alpha-reductase activity in B. brandaris at a concentration as low as 100 nM whereas only TBT (10 microM) altered the metabolism of AD in H. trunculus by increasing the activity 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17beta-HSD). Thus, this work shows that the metabolism of the androgen precursor AD strongly differs among gastropod species, both in terms of activity and metabolic profile, and further demonstrates the ability of TBT and TPT to interfere with key enzymatic pathways involved in androgen synthesis.

Gametogenesis correlated with steroid levels during the gonadal cycle of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea)

The specific mechanism regulating reproduction in invertebrates is a field of topical interest which needs to be explored in detail considering also the intriguing possible comparison with vertebrates. In this paper levels of Testosterone (T) and Estradiol (E2) and their reciprocal ratios were determined in ovaries and testis of the echinoid model species Paracentrotus lividus during the year 2004 by taking into account a putative relationship between steroid levels and reproductive cycle. T levels appeared to significantly vary during male reproductive cycle, thus suggesting a possible role of this hormone in regulation of spermatogenesis as demonstrated for other echinoderms. E2 levels were lower in males with respect to females; consequently E2 involvement in oogenesis is hypothesized. In parallel with steroid levels evaluation, variations in P450-aromatase activity and its possible role on regulation of gametogenesis were also considered. Clear correlations between steroid levels and gonad index (GI), as well as between GI and reproductive cycle were not detected, suggesting that GI alone is not a reliable parameter in describing the reproductive status of the gonads. Altogether the results obtained so far confirm the presence of a relationship between steroid levels and reproductive cycle as suggested by previous results on different echinoderm species.

Sex steroids and potential mechanisms of non-genomic endocrine disruption in invertebrates

The review reports on the presence and metabolism of sex steroids in several invertebrate species and provides detailed information on possible mechanisms of endocrine disruption other than the interaction with nuclear receptors. The presence of most vertebrate sex steroids in invertebrate tissues has been demonstrated by liquid or gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. In addition, enzymatic pathways involved in the steroidogenic pathway have been described in at least some invertebrate phyla. Some endocrine disruptors induce alterations in these metabolic pathways and might lead to changes in steroid levels. Growing evidence suggests that estradiol can act through non-genomic pathways in molluscs, and that xenobiotics can as well interfere in these signalling cascades. In spite of these recent advances, most question marks on the action and function of sex steroids in invertebrates remain to be answered.

Endocrine disrupting compounds and echinoderms: new ecotoxicological sentinels for the marine ecosystem

Echinoderms are valuable test species in marine ecotoxicology and offer a wide range of biological processes appropriate for this approach. In spite of this potential, available data in literature are still rather limited, particularly with regard to the possible effects of endocrine disrupter compounds (EDCs). This review presents echinoderms as useful models for ecotoxicological tests and gives a brief overview of the most significant results obtained in recent years, particularly in the context of the COMPRENDO EU project. In this research project two different aspects of echinoderm physiology, plausibly regulated by humoral mechanisms, were investigated: reproductive biology and regenerative development. Selected EDCs suspected for their androgenic or antiandrogenic action were tested at low concentrations. The results obtained so far showed that different parameters such as regenerative growth, histological pattern, egg diameter and gonad maturation were affected by the exposure to the selected compounds. These results substantiate that reproductive and regenerative phenomena of echinoderms can be considered valuable alternative models for studies on EDCs and confirm that these compounds interfere with fundamental physiological processes, including growth, development and reproductive competence.