6:2 fluorotelomer carboxylic acid (6:2 FTCA) exposure induces developmental toxicity and inhibits the formation of erythrocytes during zebrafish embryogenesis

Enriching fluorotelomer carboxylic acids-degrading consortia from sludges and soils

Fluorotelomer carboxylic acids (FTCAs) has drawn increasing attention due to their prevalent occurrence, high toxicity, and bioaccumulating effects. In this study, microbial consortia with sustainable FTCA removal abilities were enriched and characterized from two activated sludges and five soils when no external carbon sources were supplemented. After four generations of enrichment, stable 6:2 FTCA and 5:3 FTCA biodegradation were achieved, reaching 0.72-0.98 and 0.53-1.05 μM/day, respectively. Coupling with 6:2 FTCA biotransformation, fluoride release co-occurred, conducive to approximate 0.19 fluoride per 6:2 FTCA molecule that was biodegraded. In contrast, minimal free fluoride was detected in 5:3 FTCA-amended consortia, indicating the dominance of "non-fluoride releasing pathways". Microbial community analysis revealed the dominance of 13 genera across all consortia. Among them, 3 genera, including Hyphomicrobium, Methylorubrum, and Achromobacter, were found more enriched in consortia amended with 6:2 FTCA than those with 5:3 FTCA from an identical inoculation source, suggesting their involvement in biodefluorination. This study uncovered that microbial consortia can degrade FTCAs without the supplementation of external carbon sources, though with low biotransformation and biodefluorination rates. Further research is underscored to investigate the involved biotransformation pathways and biodefluorination mechanisms, as well as effects of external carbon sources.

Enhanced removal of trace-level per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from drinking water using granular activated carbon (GAC): The role of ozonation

Granular activated carbon (GAC) is a promising approach for removing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from drinking water. However, GAC filters usually suffer early PFAS breakthroughs due to the competition between PFAS and natural organic matter (NOM) during sorption. The present study investigated the possibility of using ozonation to enhance the GAC performance for PFAS removal. Rapid-small-scale-column tests were performed for three GACs using filtered or filtered and ozonated water. NOM was fractionated using liquid chromatography-organic carbon detection (LC-OCD), and 76 ambient PFAS were quantified using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS). Although ozonation did not remove either NOM or PFAS, it altered their composition in water. Ozonation reduced the hydrophobicity and the molecular size of natural organic matter (NOM). On the other hand, ozonation oxidized some PFAS precursors, leading to a higher total detected PFAS concentration in the filtered and ozonated water than in filtered water (10.2 ± 0.7 ng/L vs. 9.5 ± 0.7 ng/L). The impact of ozonation on GAC performance for NOM and PFAS removal mainly depended on GAC properties. GAC with a lower micropore volume showed an improvement in NOM and PFAS removal when ozonation was applied, approaching the performance of GACs with higher micropore volumes.

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and nutrients from two constructed wetlands in a city of southeastern China

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large class of toxic contaminants. Nutrients are closely related to the ecological health of aquatic systems. Both have received widespread global attention. This study investigated the concentrations, compositions, and spatial distributions of PFAS and nutrients in surface water from two constructed wetlands and the nearby drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). We explored the natural environmental factors and human activities that affect the composition and distribution of pollutants in wetlands and assessed the ability of the DWTPs to remove contaminants. Concentrations of ∑32PFAS varied from 153 to 405 ng/L. Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) was the predominant substance accounting for 45 % of ∑32PFAS concentrations. It might originate from the emissions of indirect sources of PFAS related manufacturers. The detection rate of 6:2 fluorotelomer carboxylic acid (6:2 FTCA) was 100 % with concentrations ranging from 0.915 to 19.7 ng/L 6:2 FTCA might come from the biotransformation of indirect sources in the air. Concentrations of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) were from 1.47 to 3.54 mg/L, and non-detect (ND) to 0.323 mg/L, respectively. Constructed wetlands could effectively remove PFAS under nutrient stress, however, the removal of PFAS depends on the characteristics of specific compounds and their sources. The removal rates for PFAS and nutrients could be promoted through artificial dredging. But wetland bioremediation could have two opposing effects. On the one hand, plants can take up pollutants from water via roots, leading to pollutant removal and purification. On the other hand, plants may also absorb precursor intermediates from the air through leaves and release them into the water, leading to increased pollutant concentrations. Thirty-two emerging PFAS were identified by high resolution mass spectrum. The drinking water treatment process removed PFAS and nutrients below the drinking water quality standards of China, however, 9 non-target PFAS compounds were still found in tap water. These results provide case support and a theoretical basis for the pollution control and sustainable development of typical ecological wetlands used as drinking water sources.

Exploring the Prospects and Challenges of Fluorine-Free Firefighting Foams (F3) as Alternatives to Aqueous Film-Forming Foams (AFFF): A Review

This review provides a comparative analysis of the performance, toxicity, environmental impact, and health risks associated with fluorotelomer-based/short-chain AFFF and F3. Despite notable progress in F3 development, achieving comparable performance remains challenging in some cases. F3 formulations, while promising, are yet to be considered a direct replacement for AFFF in all Class B fire suppression scenarios due to variations in their performance across different fuel types and test conditions. Available studies indicate that commercially available F3 exhibit greater biodegradability and reduced environmental persistence compared to AFFF. However, some alternatives may still pose similar environmental impacts. Limited ecotoxicity studies suggest that some F3 may exhibit equal or even higher toxicity to aquatic species than short-chain (C6) AFFF. Toxicological assessments and risk evaluations of F3 should consider factors beyond environmental persistence, including acute and chronic ecotoxicity, potential endocrine disruption, and the full toxicological profile of foam formulations and their individual components. Further research is necessary to understand the fate, transport, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of F3 degradation products. Addressing these knowledge gaps is crucial to ensure the safe and sustainable implementation of F3 as an alternative fire suppression solution.

Oxidative damage and cardiotoxicity induced by 2-aminobenzothiazole in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

There is limited information available on cardiovascular toxicity of 2-Aminobenzothiazole (NTH), a derivative of benzothiazole (BTH) commonly used in tire production, in aquatic organisms. In the present study, the zebrafish embryos were exposed to varying concentrations of NTH (0, 0.05, 0.5, and 5 mg/L) until adulthood and the potential cardiovascular toxicity was assessed. NTH exposure resulted in striking aberrations in cardiac development, including heart looping failure and interference with atrioventricular canal differentiation. RNA-sequencing analysis indicated that NTH causes oxidative damage to the heart via ferroptosis, leading to oxygen supply disruption, cardiac malformation, and ultimately, zebrafish death. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis demonstrated the dysregulation of genes associated with early heart development, contraction, and oxidative stress. Additionally, reactive oxygen species accumulation and glutathione/malondialdehyde levels changes suggested a potential link between cardiac developmental toxicity and oxidative stress. In adult zebrafish, NTH exposure led to ventricular enlargement, decreased heart rate, reduced blood flow, and prolonged RR, QRS, and QTc intervals. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to provide evidence of cardiac toxicity and the adverse effects of ontogenetic NTH exposure in zebrafish, revealing the underlying toxic mechanisms connected with oxidative stress damage. These findings may provide crucial insights into the environmental risks associated with NTH and other BTHs.

Developmental 6:2 FTCA exposure impairs renal development in chicken embryos via IGF signaling

6:2 fluorotelomer carboxylic acid (6:2 FTCA) is a perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) substitute, which is supposedly less accumulative and toxic than PFOA. However, 6:2 FTCA is structurally similar to PFOA, and there had already been reports about its toxicities comparable to PFOA. The aim of the current study is to assess potential effects of developmental exposure to 6:2 FTCA on the development of kidney in chicken embryo and to investigate underlying mechanism. Fertile chicken eggs were exposed to 1.25 mg/kg, 2.5 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg doses of 6:2 FTCA, or 2 mg/kg PFOA, then incubated to hatch. Serum and kidney of hatchling chickens were collected. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (Cre) levels were measured with commercially available kits. Morphology of kidney was assessed with histopathology. To further reveal molecular mechanism of observed endpoints, IGF signaling molecules were assessed in the kidney samples with qRT-PCR, results indicated that IGFBP3 is a potentially crucial molecule. Lentiviruses overexpressing or silencing IGFBP3 were designed and applied to enhance/suppress the expression of IGFBP3 in developing chicken embryo for further verification of its role in the observed effects. Disrupted nephron formation, in the manifestation of decreased glomeruli number/area and increased serum BUN/Cre levels, was observed in the animals developmentally exposed to 6:2 FTCA. Correspondingly, IGF signaling molecules (IGF1, IGF1R and IGFBP3) were affected by 6:2 FTCA exposure. Meanwhile, overexpression of IGFBP3 effectively alleviated such changes, while silencing of IGFBP3 mimicked observed effects. In conclusion, developmental exposure to 6:2 FTCA is associated with disrupted chicken embryo renal development, in which IGFBP3 seems to be a remarkable contributor, suggesting potential health risks for human and other species. Further risk assessments and mechanistic works are necessary.

Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid, a perfluorooctanoic acid alternative, induces cardiovascular toxicity in zebrafish embryos

As an increasingly used alternative to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) has been widely detected in global water environments. However, little is known regarding its toxic effects on cardiovascular development. Here, zebrafish embryos were treated with egg water containing 0, 60, 120, or 240 mg/L HFPO-TA. Results showed that HFPO-TA treatment led to a significant reduction in both larval survival percentage and heart rate. Furthermore, HFPO-TA exposure caused severe pericardial edema and elongation of the sinus venous to bulbus arteriosus distance (SV-BA) in Tg (myl7: GFP) transgenic larvae, disrupting the expression of genes involved in heart development and thus causing abnormal heart looping. Obvious sprouting angiogenesis was observed in the 120 and 240 mg/L exposed Tg (fli: GFP) transgenic larvae. HFPO-TA treatment also impacted the mRNA levels of genes involved in the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathway and embryonic vascular development. HFPO-TA exposure significantly decreased erythrocyte number in Tg (gata1: DsRed) transgenic embryos and influenced gene expression associated with the heme metabolism pathway. HFPO-TA also induced oxidative stress and altered the transcriptional levels of genes related to cell cycle and apoptosis, inhibiting cell proliferation while promoting apoptosis. Therefore, HFPO-TA exposure may induce abnormal development of the cardiovascular and hematopoietic systems in zebrafish embryos, suggesting it may not be a suitable or safe alternative for PFOA.

Distinctive biotransformation and biodefluorination of 6:2 versus 5:3 fluorotelomer carboxylic acids by municipal activated sludge

Fluorotelomer carboxylic acids (FTCAs) represent an important group of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) given their high toxicity, bioaccumulation potential, and frequent detection in landfill leachates and PFAS-impacted sites. In this study, we assessed the biodegradability of 6:2 FTCA and 5:3 FTCA by activated sludges from four municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the New York Metropolitan area. Coupling with 6:2 FTCA removal, significant fluoride release (0.56∼1.83 F-/molecule) was evident in sludge treatments during 7 days of incubation. Less-fluorinated transformation products (TPs) were formed, including 6:2 fluorotelomer unsaturated carboxylic acid (6:2 FTUCA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA), and perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA). In contrast, little fluoride (0.01∼0.09 F-/molecule) was detected in 5:3 FTCA-dosed microcosms, though 25∼68% of initially dosed 5:3 FTCA was biologically removed. This implies the dominance of "non-fluoride-releasing pathways" that may contribute to the formation of CoA adducts or other conjugates over 5:3 FTCA biotransformation. The discovery of defluorinated 5:3 FTUCA revealed the possibility of microbial attacks of the C-F bond at the γ carbon to initiate the transformation. Microbial community analysis revealed the possible involvement of 9 genera, such as Hyphomicrobium and Dechloromonas, in aerobic FTCA biotransformation. This study unraveled that biotransformation pathways of 6:2 and 5:3 FTCAs can be divergent, resulting in biodefluorination at distinctive degrees. Further research is underscored to uncover the nontarget TPs and investigate the involved biotransformation and biodefluorination mechanisms and molecular basis.

Time-course transcriptome analysis discloses PFDMO2OA (C8 HFPO-TA)-induced developmental malformations and cardiovascular toxicities in zebrafish

PFDMO2OA (C8 HFPO-TA), a novel substitute for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), has been frequently detected in surface waters. However, information on its toxicity remains scarce. In the present study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to varying concentrations of PFDMO2OA, ranging from 80 to 800 mg/L, until 120 h post-fertilization (hpf) to explore its potential developmental toxicities. The LC50 value for mortality was 505.9 mg/L, comparable to that of PFOA (over 500 mg/L), suggesting a lack of safety of PFDMO2OA compared to PFOA. At 120 hpf, PFDMO2OA exposure led to various malformations in embryos, including uninflated swim bladder, yolk sac oedema, spinal deformation, and pigmentation changes, with pericardial oedema being prominent. Analysis using O-dianisidine stain indicated a decline in erythrocytes over time. Transcriptome analysis further revealed the cardiovascular toxicity caused by PFDMO2OA at the molecular level. Time-course differential analysis pointed to the apoptosis dependent on disrupted mitochondrial function as a significant contributor to erythrocyte disappearance, as confirmed by the TUNEL stain. Therefore, the present findings suggest that PFDMO2OA induces developmental malformations and cardiovascular toxicities in zebrafish embryos, demonstrating a toxic potency comparable to that of PFOA. The results further highlight the significance of evaluating the health risks associated with PFDMO2OA.

Structural dependence of PFAS oxidation in a boron doped diamond-electrochemical system

Driven by long-term persistence and adverse health impacts of legacy perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), production has shifted towards shorter chain analogs (C4, perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA)) or fluorinated alternatives such as hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA, known as GenX) and 6:2 fluorotelomer carboxylic acid (6:2 FTCA). Yet, a thorough understanding of treatment processes for these alternatives is limited. Herein, we conducted a comprehensive study using an electrochemical approach with a boron doped diamond anode in Na2SO4 electrolyte for the remediation of PFOA common alternatives, i.e., PFBA, GenX, and 6:2 FTCA. The degradability, fluorine recovery, transformation pathway, and contributions from electro-synthesized radicals were investigated. The results indicated the significance of chain length and structure, with shorter chains being harder to break down (PFBA (65.6 ± 5.0%) < GenX (84.9 ± 3.3%) < PFOA (97.9 ± 0.1%) < 6:2 FTCA (99.4 ± 0.0%) within 120 min of electrolysis). The same by-products were observed during the oxidation of both low and high concentrations of parent PFAS (2 and 20 mg L-1), indicating that the fundamental mechanism of PFAS degradation remained consistent. Nevertheless, the ratio of these by-products to the parent PFAS concentration varied which primarily arises from the more rapid PFAS decomposition at lower dosages. For all experiments, the main mechanism of PFAS oxidation was initiated by direct electron transfer at the anode surface. Sulfate radical (SO4•-) also contributed to the oxidation of all PFAS, while hydroxyl radical (•OH) only played a role in the decomposition of 6:2 FTCA. Total fluorine recovery of PFBA, GenX, and 6:2 FTCA were 96.5%, 94.0%, and 76.4% within 240 min. The more complex transformation pathway of 6:2 FTCA could explain its lower fluorine recovery. Detailed decomposition pathways for each PFAS were also proposed through identifying the generated intermediates and fluorine recovery. The proposed pathways were also assessed using 19F Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.

Emerging and legacy per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in fluorochemical wastewater along full-scale treatment processes: Source, fate, and ecological risk

The increasing applications of emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have raised global concern. However, the release of emerging PFAS from the fluorochemical industry remains unclear. Herein, the occurrence of 48 emerging and legacy PFAS in wastewater from 10 fluorochemical manufacturers and mass flows of PFAS in a centralized wastewater treatment plant were investigated. Their distribution and ecological risk in neighboring riverine water were also evaluated. In wastewater from fluorochemical manufacturers, PFAS concentrations were in the range of 14,700-5200,000 ng/L and 2 H,2 H-perfluorooctanoic acid (6:2 FTCA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), N-ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamide (N-EtFOSA), and 1 H,1 H,2 H,2 H-perfluorodecanesulfonate (8:2 FTS) were the major PFAS detected. Several PFAS displayed increased mass flows after wastewater treatment, especially PFOA and 6:2 FTCA. The mass flows of PFAS increased from - 20% to 233% after the activated sludge system but decreased by only 0-13% after the activated carbon filtration. In riverine water, PFAS concentrations were in the range of 5900-39,100 ng/L and 6:2 FTCA, 1 H,1 H,2 H,2 H-perfluorodecyl phosphate monoester (8:2 monoPAP), 1 H,1 H,2 H,2 H-perfluorooctyl phosphate monoester (6:2 monoPAP), PFOA, and perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) were the major PFAS detected. PFOA and 6:2 FTCA exhibited comparable hazard quotients for ecological risk. Current wastewater treatment processes cannot fully remove various PFAS discharged by fluorochemical manufacturers, and further investigations on their risk are needed for better chemical management.

Using regular and transcriptomic analyses to investigate the biotransformation mechanism and phytotoxic effects of 6:2 fluorotelomer carboxylic acid (6:2 FTCA) in pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima L.)

Although 6:2 fluorotelomer carboxylic acid (6:2 FTCA), which is one of the most popular substitutes for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), has been widely distributed in environments, little is known about its biotransformation mechanism and phytotoxic effects in plants. Here, we showed that 6:2 FTCA could be taken up by pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima L.) roots from exposure solution and acropetally translocated to shoots. Biotransformation of 6:2 FTCA to different carbon chain perfluorocarboxylic acid (PFCA) metabolites (C2-C7) via α-and β-oxidation in pumpkin was observed, and perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) was the major transformation product. The results of enzyme assays, enzyme inhibition experiments and gene expression analysis indicated that cytochrome P450 (CYP450), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters were involved in the metabolism of 6:2 FTCA in pumpkin. Plant-associated rhizobacteria and endophyte also contributed to 6:2 FTCA degradation through β-oxidation. The chlorophyll (Chl) content and genes involved in photosynthesis were significantly improved by 6:2 FTCA. The reductions of antioxidant and metabolic enzyme activities reflected the antioxidant defense system and detoxification system of pumpkin were both damaged, which were further confirmed by the down-regulating associated genes encoding phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, endoplasmic reticulum-related proteins, ascorbate-glutathione cycle and ABC transporters. This study is helpful to understand the environmental behaviors and toxicological molecular mechanisms of 6:2 FTCA in plants.

Insight into the mechanisms of neuroendocrine toxicity induced by 6:2FTCA via thyroid hormone disruption

6:2 fluorotonic carboxylic acid (6:2 FTCA), a novel substitute for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), is being used gradually in industrial production such as coatings or processing aids, and its detection rate in the aqueous environment is increasing year by year, posing a potential safety risk to aquatic systems and public health. However, limited information is available on the effects and mechanism of 6:2 FTCA. Therefore, this study was conducted to understand better the neuroendocrine effects of early exposure to 6:2 FTCA and the underlying mechanisms on zebrafish. In this study, zebrafish embryos were treated to varied doses of 6:2 FTCA (0, 0.08 μg/mL, 0.8 μg/mL and 8 μg/mL) at 4 h post-fertilization (hpf) for a duration of six days, which exhibited a pronounced inhibition of early growth and induced a disorganized swim pattern characterized by reduced total swim distance and average swim speed. Simultaneously, the thyroid development of zebrafish larvae was partially hindered, accompanied by decreased T3 levels, altered genes associated with the expression of thyroid hormone synthesis, transformation and transportation and neurotransmitters associated with tryptophan and tyrosine metabolic pathways. Molecular docking results showed that 6:2 FTCA has a robust binding energy with the thyroid hormone receptor (TRβ). Moreover, exogenous T3 supplementation can partially restore the adverse outcomes. Our findings indicated that 6:2 FTCA acts as a thyroid endocrine disruptor and can induce neuroendocrine toxic effects. Furthermore, our results show that targeting TRβ may be a potentially therapeutic strategy for 6:2 FTCA-induced neuroendocrine disrupting effects.

Synthesis, Surface Activity, and Foamability of Two Short-Chain Fluorinated Sulfonate Surfactants with Ether Bonds

Fluorinated surfactants are widely used in many fields because of their excellent surface active properties, but their high stability has caused many environmental problems. With the ban and restriction of classical long-chain fluorinated surfactants such as perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) worldwide, the development and replacement of their alternatives is now a major challenge. How to reduce environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and biotoxicity while maintaining high surface activity has become an important issue in the development of fluorinated surfactants. Using short-chain fluorinated surfactants is one of the important solutions to resolve the pollution of organic fluorinated compounds. In this article, we synthesized two short-chain fluorinated surfactants with ether bonds. One of them 6:2 FTESNa (2) used the perfluoroalkyl chain (n-C6F13-) and the other C72 FEESNa (4) used the fluoroether segment with six fluorinated carbons and two oxygens (CF3OCF(CF3)CF2OCF(CF3)). The surface activity, foam performance, and wettability of the two molecules were measured. The surface tensions at critical micelle concentration (γcmc) and the critical micelle concentration (cmc) of 2 and 4 were 17.6 mN/m (2.2 g/L) and 20.2 mN/m (4.6 g/L), respectively. Both of them were significantly superior to the surface activity of 6:2 FTSNa (7) which is one of the current alternatives for PFOS. Additionally, the foamability and foam stability of both 2 and 4 were better than that of 7. In the aspect of wettability on PTFE, that of 4 was greater than those of 2 and 7. In summary, this work provided a new choice for alternatives of PFOS and PFOA.

Environmental pollutant pre- and polyfluoroalkyl substances are associated with electrocardiogram parameters disorder in adults

Environmental pollutants exposure might disrupt cardiac function, but evidence about the associations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) exposure and cardiac conduction system remains sparse. To explore the associations between serum PFASs exposure and electrocardiogram (ECG) parameters changes in adults, we recruited 1229 participants (mean age: 55.1 years) from communities of Guangzhou, China. 13 serum PFASs with detection rate > 85% were analyzed finally. We selected 6 ECG parameters [heart rate (HR), PR interval, QRS duration, Bazett heart rate-corrected QT interval (QTc), QRS electric axis and RV5 + SV1 voltage] as outcomes. Generalized linear models (GLMs) and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) model were conducted to explore the associations of individual and joint PFASs exposure and ECG parameters changes, respectively. We detected significant associations of PFASs exposure with decreased HR, QRS duration, but with increased PR interval. For example, at the 95th percentile of 6:2 Cl-PFESA, HR and QRS duration were - 6.98 [95% confidence interval (CI): - 9.07, - 4.90] and - 6.54(95% CI: -9.05, -4.03) lower, but PR interval was 7.35 (95% CI: 3.52, 11.17) longer than those at the 25th percentile. Similarly, significant joint associations were observed in HR, PR interval and QRS duration when analyzed by BKMR model.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in marine organisms along the coast of China

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a large and complex class of synthetic chemicals widely used in industrial and domestic products. This study compiled and analyzed the distribution and composition of PFASs in marine organisms sampled along the coast of China from 2002 to 2020. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were dominant in bivalves, cephalopods, crustaceans, bony fish and mammals. PFOA in bivalves, crustaceans, bony fish and mammals gradually decreased from north to south along the coast of China, and the PFOA contents of bivalves and gastropods in the Bohai Sea (BS) and the Yellow Sea (YS) were higher than those of PFOS. The increased production and use of PFOA have been detected by biomonitoring temporal treads in mammals. For the organisms in the East China Sea (ECS) and the South China Sea (SCS), which were less polluted by PFOA compared to BS and YS, PFOS was universally higher than PFOA. The PFOS of mammals with high trophic levels was significantly higher than that of other taxa. This study is conducive to better understanding the monitoring information of PFASs of marine organisms in China and is of great significance for PFAS pollution control and management.

Integration of target, suspect, and nontarget screening with risk modeling for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances prioritization in surface waters

Though thousands of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been on the global market, most research focused on only a small fraction, potentially resulting in underestimated environmental risks. Here, we used complementary target, suspect, and nontarget screening for quantifying and identifying the target and nontarget PFAS, respectively, and developed a risk model considering their specific properties to prioritize the PFAS in surface waters. Thirty-three PFAS were identified in surface water in the Chaobai river, Beijing. The suspect and nontarget screening by Orbitrap displayed a sensitivity of > 77%, indicating its good performance in identifying the PFAS in samples. We used triple quadrupole (QqQ) under multiple-reaction monitoring for quantifying PFAS with authentic standards due to its potentially high sensitivity. To quantify the nontarget PFAS without authentic standards, we trained a random forest regression model which presented the differences up to only 2.7 times between measured and predicted response factors (RFs). The maximum/minimum RF in each PFAS class was as high as 1.2-10.0 in Orbitrap and 1.7-22.3 in QqQ. A risk-based prioritization approach was developed to rank the identified PFAS, and four PFAS (i.e., perfluorooctanoic acid, hydrogenated perfluorohexanoic acid, bistriflimide, 6:2 fluorotelomer carboxylic acid) were flagged with high priority (risk index > 0.1) for remediation and management. Our study highlighted the importance of a quantification strategy during environmental scrutiny of PFAS, especially for nontarget PFAS without standards.

A review of cardiovascular effects and underlying mechanisms of legacy and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) poses the leading threats to human health and life, and their occurrence and severity are associated with exposure to environmental pollutants. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), a group of widely used industrial chemicals, are characterized by persistence, long-distance migration, bioaccumulation, and toxicity. Some PFAS, particularly perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), have been banned, leaving only legacy exposure to the environment and human body, while a number of novel PFAS alternatives have emerged and raised concerns, such as polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonic and carboxylic acid (PFESA and PFECA) and sodium p-perfluorous nonenoxybenzene sulfonate (OBS). Overall, this review systematically elucidated the adverse cardiovascular (CV) effects of legacy and emerging PFAS, emphasized the dose/concentration-dependent, time-dependent, carbon chain length-dependent, sex-specific, and coexposure effects, and discussed the underlying mechanisms and possible prevention and treatment. Extensive epidemiological and laboratory evidence suggests that accumulated serum levels of legacy PFAS possibly contribute to an increased risk of CVD and its subclinical course, such as cardiac toxicity, vascular disorder, hypertension, and dyslipidemia. The underlying biological mechanisms may include oxidative stress, signaling pathway disturbance, lipid metabolism disturbance, and so on. Various emerging alternatives to PFAS also play increasingly prominent toxic roles in CV outcomes that are milder, similar to, or more severe than legacy PFAS. Future research is recommended to conduct more in-depth CV toxicity assessments of legacy and emerging PFAS and explore more effective surveillance, prevention, and treatment strategies, accordingly.

Assessing aerobic biotransformation of 8:2 fluorotelomer alcohol in aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF)-impacted soils: Pathways and microbial community dynamics

Production of 8:2 fluorotelomer alcohol (8:2 FTOH) for industrial and consumer products, including aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) used for firefighting, has resulted in its widespread occurrence in the environment. However, the fate of 8:2 FTOH at AFFF-impacted sites remains largely unknown. Using AFFF-impacted soils from two United States Air Force Bases, microcosm experiments evaluated the aerobic biotransformation of 8:2 FTOH (extent and byproduct formation) and the dose-response on microbial communities due to 8:2 FTOH exposure. Despite different microbial communities, rapid transformation of 8:2 FTOH was observed during a 90-day incubation in the two soils, and 7:2 secondary fluorotelomer alcohol (7:2 sFTOH) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were detected as major transformation products. Novel transformation products, including perfluoroalkane-like compounds (1H-perfluoroheptane, 1H-perfluorohexane, and perfluoroheptanal) were identified by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and used to develop aerobic 8:2 FTOH biotransformation pathways. Microbial community analysis suggests that species from genus Sphingomonas are potential 8:2 FTOH degraders based on increased abundance in both soils after exposure, and the genus Afipia may be more tolerant to and/or involved in the transformation of 8:2 FTOH at elevated concentrations. These findings demonstrate the potential role of biological processes on PFAS fate at AFFF-impacted sites through fluorotelomer biotransformation.

Sources, occurrence and toxic effects of emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) cause potential threats to biota and are persistent and never-ending substances in the environment. Regulations and ban on legacy PFAS by various global organizations and national level regulatory agencies had shifted the fluorochemical production to emerging PFAS and fluorinated alternatives. Emerging PFAS are mobile and more persistent in aquatic systems, posing potential greater threats to human and environmental health. Emerging PFAS have been found in aquatic animals, rivers, food products, aqueous film-forming foams, sediments, and a variety of other ecological media. This review summarizes the physicochemical properties, sources, occurrence in biota and the environment, and toxicity of the emerging PFAS. Fluorinated and non-fluorinated alternatives for several industrial applications and consumer goods as the replacement of historical PFAS are also discussed in the review. Fluorochemical production plants and wastewater treatment plants are the main sources of emerging PFAS to various environmental matrices. Information and research are scarcely available on the sources, existence, transport, fate, and toxic effects of emerging PFAS to date.

Impacts of PFOAC8, GenXC6, and their mixtures on zebrafish developmental toxicity and gene expression provide insight about tumor-related disease

Concerns about per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have grown in importance in the fields of ecotoxicology and public health. This study aims to compare the potential effects of long-chain (carbon atoms ≥ 7) and short-chain derivatives and their mixtures' exposure according to PFASs-exposed (1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 mg/L) zebrafish's (Danio rerio) toxic effects and their differential gene expression. Here, PFOA_C8, GenX_C6, and their mixtures (v/v, 1:1) could reduce embryo hatchability and increase teratogenicity and mortality. The toxicity of PFOA_C8 was higher than that of GenX_C6, and the toxicity of their mixtures was irregular. Their exposure (2 mg/L) caused zebrafish ventricular edema, malformation of the spine, blood accumulation, or developmental delay. In addition, all of them had significant differences in gene expression. PFOA_C8 exposure causes overall genetic changes, and the pathways of this transformation were autophagy and apoptosis. More importantly, in order to protect cells from PFOA_C8, GenX_C6, and their mixtures' influences, zebrafish inhibited the expression of ATPase and Ca²⁺ transport gene (atp1b2b), mitochondrial function-related regulatory genes (mt-co2, mt-co3, and mt-cyb), and tumor or carcinogenic cell proliferation genes (laptm4b and ctsbb). Overall, PFOA_C8, GenX_C6, and their mixtures' exposures will affect the gene expression effects of zebrafish embryos, indicating that PFASs may pose a potential threat to aquatic biological safety. These results showed that the relevant genes in zebrafish that were inhibited by PFASs exposure were related to tumorigenesis. Therefore, the effect of PFASs on zebrafish can be further used to study the pathogenesis of tumors.

Rapid quantitative analysis and suspect screening of per-and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs) in aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) and municipal wastewater samples by Nano-ESI-HRMS

A rapid analytical method for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) combining nano-electrospray ionization and high-resolution mass spectrometry (Nano-ESI-HRMS) was developed and applied to aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) and wastewater samples collected from three local wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). This method exhibited high sensitivity with lower limits of detection (LODs) of 3.2∼36.2 ng/L for 22 target PFAS analytes. In AFFF formulations, Nano-ESI-HRMS enabled the first-time detection of trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (TFMS), perfluoroethyl cyclohexanesulfonate (PFECHS), 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonyl amido sulfonic acid (6:2 FTSAS-SO2), N-ammoniopropyl perfluoroalkanesulfonamidopropylsulfonate (N-AmP-FASAPS, n = 3-6), ketone-perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (Keto-PFOS), fluorotelomer unsaturated amide sulfonic acid (FTUAmS, n = 7), and 6:2 fluorotelomer amide (6:2 FTAm). Their structures were verified by the tandem MS analysis using collision-induced dissociation. Further, the combination of absolute and semi-quantification results revealed 16 PFASs from 9 PFAS classes as dominant AFFF constituents, accounting for 88.2∼96.5% of the total detected anionic and zwitterionic PFASs, including perfluorinated sulfonic acids (PFSAs, n = 1,4∼8), 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonates (6:2 FTS), fluorotelomer thioether amido sulfonic acid (FTSAS, n = 6,8), fluorotelomer sulfinyl amido sulfonic acid (FTSAS-SO, n = 6,8), N-AmP-FASAPS (n = 6), 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonamide alkylbetaine (6:2 FTAB), perfluoroalkylsulfonamido amino carboxylate (PFASAC, n = 6), 2-((perfluorooctyl)thio)acetatic acid (Thio-8:2 FTCA), and 6:2 FTAm. At WWTPs, aerobic and anaerobic biotransformation of PFAS precursors at the aeration tanks and secondary clarifiers were evident by the generation of mid/short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids, such as perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA), as well as the emergence of ultrashort trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and TFMS and several novel fluorotelomer carboxylic acids (FTCAs). Overall, Nano-ESI-HRMS enabled comprehensive PFAS quantitative analysis and suspect screening, applicable for rapid investigation and assessment of PFAS-related exposure and treatment in environmental matrixes. Our results also revealed that AFFFs and municipal wastewaters are two key sources contributing to the prevalent detection of ultrashort-chain PFASs (e.g., TFMS and TFA) in water.

Discovery of a Potent and Orally Bioavailable Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 2α (HIF-2α) Agonist and Its Synergistic Therapy with Prolyl Hydroxylase Inhibitors for the Treatment of Renal Anemia

Activation of hypoxia-inducible factor 2 (HIF-2) has emerged as a potent renal anemia treatment strategy. Here, the benzisothiazole derivative 26 was discovered as a novel HIF-2α agonist, which first demonstrated nanomolar activity (EC₅₀ = 490 nM, E_max = 349.2%) in the luciferase reporter gene assay. Molecular dynamics simulations indicated that 26 could allosterically enhance HIF-2 dimerization. Furthermore, compound 26 had a good pharmacokinetic profile (the oral bioavailability in rats was 41.38%) and an in vivo safety profile (the LD₅₀ in mice was greater than 708 mg·kg^-1). In the in vivo efficacy assays, the combination of 26 and the prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor, AKB-6548, was confirmed for the first time to synergistically increase the plasma erythropoietin level in mice (from 260 to 2296 pg·mL^-1) and alleviate zebrafish anemia induced by doxorubicin. These results provide new insights for HIF-2α agonists and the treatment of renal anemia.

Regulating PFAS as a Chemical Class under the California Safer Consumer Products Program

BACKGROUND

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of manmade chemicals containing at least one fully fluorinated carbon atom. The widespread use, large number, and diverse chemical structures of PFAS pose challenges to any sufficiently protective regulation, emissions reduction, and remediation at contaminated sites. Regulating only a subset of PFAS has led to their replacement with other members of the class with similar hazards, that is, regrettable substitutions. Regulations that focus solely on perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are ineffective, given that nearly all other PFAS can generate PFAAs in the environment.

OBJECTIVES

In this commentary, we present the rationale adopted by the State of California's Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) for regulating PFAS as a class in certain consumer products.

DISCUSSION

We at the California DTSC propose regulating certain consumer products if they contain any member of the class of PFAS because: a) all PFAS, or their degradation, reaction, or metabolism products, display at least one common hazard trait according to the California Code of Regulations, namely environmental persistence; and b) certain key PFAS that are the degradation, reaction or metabolism products, or impurities of nearly all other PFAS display additional hazard traits, including toxicity; are widespread in the environment, humans, and biota; and will continue to cause adverse impacts for as long as any PFAS continue to be used. Regulating PFAS as a class is thus logical, necessary, and forward-thinking. This technical position may be helpful to other regulatory agencies in comprehensively addressing this large class of chemicals with common hazard traits. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP7431.

Fluorotelomer Alcohols' Toxicology Correlates with Oxidative Stress and Metabolism

Fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOHs) are widely used as industrial raw materials due to their unique hydrophobic and oleophobic properties. However, because of accidental exposure to products containing FTOHs or with the widespread use of FTOHs, they tend to contaminate the water and the soil. There are reports demonstrating that FTOHs can cause various harmful effects in animals and humans (for example, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity, endocrine-disrupting activity, and developmental and reproductive toxicities). Oxidative stress is related to a variety of toxic effects induced by FTOHs. To date, few reviews have addressed the relationship between the toxicity of FTOHs and oxidative stress. This article summarises research demonstrating that the toxicity induced by FTOHs correlates with oxidative stress and metabolism. Furthermore, during the metabolic process of FTOHs, a number of cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP450) are involved and many metabolites are produced by these enzymes, which can induce oxidative stress. This is also reviewed.

Aerobic biotransformation of fluorotelomer compounds in landfill leachate-sediment

Consumer products containing fluorotelomer polymers are a source of fluorotelomer compounds to the environment following their disposal at landfills. The fate and transformation of fluorotelomer compounds are unknown in landfill leachates. This study investigates the aerobic biotransformation of 8:2 fluorotelomer alcohol (FTOH) and 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (FTS) in landfill leachate-sediment microcosms using batch tests. Spiked 8:2 FTOH, 6:2 FTS and their known biotransformation products were quantified in sediment-leachate and headspace over 90 days under aerobic conditions. 8:2 FTOH and 6:2 FTS biotransformation was slow (half-life >>30 d) in landfill leachate-sediment microcosm, suggesting persistence of fluorotelomer compounds under the conditions investigated. Significant volatilization (>20%) of 8:2 FTOH was observed in the microcosm headspace after 90 days. C6 - C8 and C4 - C6 perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) were the most abundant products for 8:2 FTOH and 6:2 FTS, respectively. PFCAs accounted for 4-9 mol% of the initially spiked parent compounds at 90 days. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was the single most abundant product of 8:2 FTOH (>2.8 mol% at 90 days). The unaccounted mass (20 to 35 mol%) of the initially spiked parent compounds indicated formation of fluorotelomer intermediates and sediment-bound residue. Overall the findings suggest that aerobic biotransformation of fluorotelomer compounds acts as a secondary source of long- and short-chain (≤C7) PFCAs in the environment. Partitioning of semi-volatile fluorotelomer compounds (e.g., 8:2 FTOH) to the gas-phase indicates possible long-range transport and subsequent release of PFCAs in pristine environments. Short-chain fluorotelomer replacements (e.g., 6:2 FTS) result in a higher abundance of short-chain PFCAs in landfill leachate. Future research is needed to understand the long-term exposure effects of short-chain PFCAs to humans, aquatic life and biota.

Prioritizing selected PPCPs on the basis of environmental and toxicogenetic concerns: A toxicity estimation to confirmation approach

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), the pollutants of emerging concerns, present potential risks to the ecological environment. This study focused on the prioritization of widely used selected PPCPs belonging to two categories:personal care products (PCPs) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). We predicted the toxicogenetic endpoints of PPCPs and then confirmed them using experimental approaches. Our results revealed a significant similarity in the findings obtained through both approaches, indicating NSAIDs with relatively high environmental impacts and in vitro/vivo toxicity. Experimental approach revealed that musk xylene (MX) from PCPs and DIC from NSAIDs as individual chemicals of priority concern showed elevated environmental impacts and significantly induced pi3k-akt-mTOR in vitro. Similarly, propyl paraben (PP) from PCPs and diclofenac (DIC) from NSAIDs caused significant cytotoxicity and DNA damage in vitro. Moreover, PP and MX from the PCPs group and naproxen (NAP) and DIC from the NSAIDs group induced developmental toxicity and perturbations to phases I, II, and III detoxification pathways in vivo. In addition, MX and DIC as priority PPCPs inhibited hematopoiesis and hepatogenesis in vivo. Apart from the specific effects, PPCPs can be ranked as: MX > PP > methylparaben (MP) for PCPs, and DIC > NAP > ibuprofen (IBU) for NSAIDs, regarding their toxic and environmental concerns.

A review of sources, multimedia distribution and health risks of novel fluorinated alternatives

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of emerging persistent organic pollutants (POPs). They are widely used in industrial and consumer applications. Due to their persistence, bioaccumulation, long-distance migration and toxicity, it is important to find new compounds that can replace PFASs. The present review investigated the sources, fates and environmental effects of alternative PFAS compounds using surveys have been conducted over the past several years. Concentrations of PFAS alternatives in various environmental media, as well as human tissues, are summarized based on the available data. The results showed that hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer (HFPO-DA), hexafluoropropylene trimer acids (HFPO-TA), and 6:2 chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonic acid (6:2 Cl-PFESA) have become the dominant global perfluorinated pollutants. Currently, there are a few toxicity assessments of these novel fluorinated alternatives, showing that they have systemic multiple organ toxicities. PFAS alternatives exhibited comparable or even more serious potential toxicity than legacy PFASs, indicating that these fluorinated alternatives are also harmful to the environment. Therefore, these alternatives require additional toxicological studies to confirm whether they can be used for a long time.

Removal of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances using super-fine powder activated carbon and ceramic membrane filtration

Contamination of drinking water sources with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) is a major challenge for environmental engineers. While granular activated carbon (GAC) is an effective adsorbent-based treatment technology for long-chained PFASs, GAC is less effective for removal of short-chained compounds, necessitating a more complete treatment strategy. Super-fine powder activated carbon (SPAC; particle diameter <1 um) is potentially a superior adsorbent to GAC due to high specific surface area and faster adsorption kinetics. This study served to evaluate SPAC coupled with ceramic microfiltration (CMF) for PFAS removal in a continuous flow system. Comparison of PFAS mass loading rates onto SPAC and GAC to 10% breakthrough of PFASs using contaminated groundwater indicates that SPAC has nearly double the adsorption potential of GAC. Limitations reaching breakthrough for the SPAC system led to additional higher mass loading experiments where PFAS adsorption onto SPAC reached 2990 μg/g (for quantifiable PFASs), 480x greater than GAC and is thought to be a function of adsorbent size, pore content and PFAS chain length. Additional analysis of system performance through the application of liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QToF-MS) revealed the presence of additional PFASs in influent samples that were removed by the SPAC/CMF system.

New toxicogenetic insights and ranking of the selected pharmaceuticals belong to the three different classes: A toxicity estimation to confirmation approach

Tetracycline hydrochloride (TH), indomethacin (IM), and bezafibrate (BF) belong to the three different important classes of pharmaceuticals, which are well known for their toxicity and environmental concerns. However, studies are still elusive to highlight the mechanistic toxicity of these pharmaceuticals and rank them using both, the toxicity prediction and confirmation approaches. Therefore, we employed the next generation toxicity testing in 21st century (TOX21) tools and estimated the in vitro/vivo toxic endpoints of mentioned pharmaceuticals, and then confirmed them using in vitro/vivo assays. We found significant resemblance in the results obtained via both approaches, especially in terms of in vivo LC50 s and developmental toxicity that ranked IM as most toxic among the studied pharmaceuticals. However, TH appeared most toxic with the lowest estimated AC50s, the highest experimental IC50s, and DNA damages in vitro. Contrarily, IM was found as congener with priority concern to activate the Pi3k-Akt-mTOR pathway in vitro at concentrations substantially lower than that of TH and BF. Further, IM exposure at lower doses (2.79-13.97 μM) depressed the pharmaceuticals detoxification phase I (CYP450 s), phase II (UGTs, SULTs), and phase III (TPs) pathways in zebrafish, whereas, at relatively higher doses, TH (2.08-33.27 μM) and BF (55.28-884.41 μM) partially activated these pathways, which ultimately caused the developmental toxicity in the following order: IM > TH > BF. In addition, we also ranked these pharmaceuticals in terms of their particular toxicity to myogenesis, hematopoiesis, and hepatogenesis in zebrafish embryos. Our results revealed that IM significantly affected myogenesis, hematopoiesis, and hepatogenesis, while TH and BF induced prominent effects on hematopoiesis via significant downregulation of associated genetic markers, such as drl, mpx, and gata2a. Overall, our findings confirmed that IM has higher toxicity than that of TH and BF, therefore, the consumption of these pharmaceuticals should be regulated in the same manner to ensure human and environmental safety.