Nanocomposite hydrogels for melanoma skin cancer care and treatment: In-vitro drug delivery, drug release kinetics and anti-cancer activities

Current progress of protein-based dressing for wound healing applications - A review

Protein-based wound dressings have garnered increasing interest in recent years owing to their distinct physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. The intricate molecular composition of proteins gives rise to unique characteristics, such as exceptional biocompatibility, biodegradability, and responsiveness, which contribute to the promotion of wound healing. Wound healing is an intricate and ongoing process influenced by multiple causes, and it consists of four distinct phases. Various treatments have been developed to repair different types of skin wounds, thanks to advancements in medical technology and the recognition of the diverse nature of wounds. This review has literature reviewed within the last 3-5 years-the recent progress and development of protein in wound dressings and the fundamental properties of an ideal wound dressing. Herein, the recent strides in protein-based state-of-the-art wound dressing emphasize the significant challenges and summarize future perspectives for wound healing applications.

Metal-organic frameworks: synthesis, properties, wound dressing, challenges and scopes in advanced wound dressing

Wound healing is a critical but complex biological process of skin tissue repair and regeneration resulting from various systems working together at the cellular and molecular levels. Quick wound healing and the problems associated with traditional wound repair techniques are being overcome with multifunctional materials. Over time, this research area has drawn significant attention. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), owning to their peculiar physicochemical characteristics, are now considered a promising class of well-suited porous materials for wound healing in addition to their other biological applications. This detailed literature review provides an overview of the latest developments in MOFs for wound healing applications. We have discussed the synthesis, essential biomedical properties, wound-healing mechanism, MOF-based dressing materials, and their wound-healing applications. The possible major challenges and limitations of MOFs have been discussed, along with conclusions and future perspectives. This overview of the literature review addresses MOFs-based wound healing from several angles and covers the most current developments in the subject. The readers may discover how the MOFs advanced this discipline by producing more inventive, useful, and successful dressings. It influences the development of future generations of biomaterials for the healing and regeneration of skin wounds.

Current Perspectives of Protein in Bone Tissue Engineering: Bone Structure, Ideal Scaffolds, Fabrication Techniques, Applications, Scopes, and Future Advances

In view of their exceptional approach, excellent inherent biocompatibility and biodegradability properties, and interaction with the local extracellular matrix, protein-based polymers have received attention in bone tissue engineering, which is a multidisciplinary field that repairs and regenerates fractured bones. Bone is a multihierarchical complex structure, and it performs several essential biofunctions, including maintaining mineral balance and structural support and protecting soft organs. Protein-based polymers have gained interest in developing ideal scaffolds as emerging biomaterials for bone fractured healing and regeneration, and it is challenging to design ideal bone substitutes as perfect biomaterials. Several protein-based polymers, including collagen, keratin, gelatin, serum albumin, etc., are potential materials due to their inherent cytocompatibility, controlled biodegradability, high biofunctionalization, and tunable mechanical characteristics. While numerous studies have indicated the encouraging possibilities of proteins in BTE, there are still major challenges concerning their biodegradability, stability in physiological conditions, and continuous release of growth factors and bioactive molecules. Robust scaffolds derived from proteins can be used to replace broken or diseased bone with a biocompatible substitute; proteins, being biopolymers, provide excellent scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Herein, recent developments in protein polymers for cutting-edge bone tissue engineering are addressed in this review within 3-5 years, with a focus on the significant challenges and future perspectives. The first section discusses the structural fundamentals of bone anatomy and ideal scaffolds, and the second section describes the fabrication techniques of scaffolds. The third section highlights the importance of proteins and their applications in BTE. Hence, the recent development of protein polymers for state-of-the-art bone tissue engineering has been discussed, highlighting the significant challenges and future perspectives.

Fabrication of pH-stimuli hydrogel as bioactive materials for wound healing applications

Hydrogels exhibit exceptional suitability as wound dressing due to their remarkable three-dimensional (3D) characteristics. Here, we have reported the fabrication of hydrogels from biopolymers carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and gelatin via a simple blending method to mimic the natural extracellular matrix. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), water contact meters (WCM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to evaluate the chemical structural, morphological, and wettability behavior. The wetting and degradation behavior were also found to be different for different formulations (Min. (51.60o) and Max. (113.60o)) and (Min. (38.82 mg) and Max. (3.72 mg)), respectively. Swelling was investigated in different media, including phosphate buffer saline solution (PBS) and aqueous media. It was observed that the hydrogel displayed the highest degree of swelling in an aqueous medium (Min. (597.32-1121.49 %) and Max. (1089.51-2139.73 %)) compared to PBS media (Min. (567.01-1021.85 %) and Max. (899.13-1639.17 %)). The release of Neomycin was studied in a PBS medium via the Franz diffusion method at 37 °C. The maximal release in various media demonstrated pH-responsive behavior. The viability and proliferation of fibroblast (3T3) cell lines were examined in vitro to evaluate cytocompatibility. Human Embryonic Kidney (HEK) 293 cells were used to evaluate the hydrogels' ability to promote vascularization and angiogenesis. Therefore, the data demonstrate that hydrogels that have been manufactured have qualities that make them promising for use as wound dressings in wound healing applications.

Development of nanoemulgel of 5-Fluorouracil for skin melanoma using glycyrrhizin as a penetration enhancer

The purpose of this study was to enhance the topical delivery of 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU), a cancer treatment, by developing a nanoemulgel formulation. Glycyrrhizin (GLY), a natural penetration enhancer has been investigated to exhibit synergistic effects with 5-FU in inhibiting melanoma cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis, Hence, GLY, along with suitable lipids was utilized to create an optimized nanoemulsion (NE) based gel. Solubility studies and ternary phase diagram revealed isopropyl myristate (IPM), Span 80, Tween 80 as Smix and Transcutol P as co-surfactant. IPM demonstrates excellent solubilizing properties facilitates higher drug loading, ensuring efficient delivery to the target site.,The optimized formulation consisting of 40 % IPM, 30 % of mixture of Tween80: Span80 (Smix) and 15 % Transcutol P provides with a nanometric size of 64.1 ± 5.13 nm and drug loading of 97.3 ± 5.83 %. The optimized formulation observed with no creaming and breakeing of NE and found thermodynamically stable during different stress conditions (temperatures of 4.0 °C and 45.0 °C) and physical thawing (-21.0 ± 0.50 °C to 20.0 ± 0.50 °C). The NE was then transformed into a nanoemulgel (NEG) using 1.5 % w/w Carbopol base and 0.1 % w/w glycyrrhizin. The ex vivo permeability studies showed significant enhancements in drug permeability with the GLY-based 5-FU-NEG formulation compared to pure 5-FU gel in excised pig skin upto1440 min in PBS 7.4 as receptor media. The IC50 values for Plain 5-FU gel, 5-FU-NEG, and GLY-based 5-FU-NEG were found to be 20 µg/mL, 1.1 µg/mL, and 0.1 µg/mL, respectively in B16F10 cell lines. The percentage intracellular uptake of GLY-5-FU-NEG and 5-FU-NEG was found to be 44.3 % and 53.6 %, respectively. GLY-based 5-FU-NEG formulation showed alterations in cell cycle distribution, in compared to 5-FU-NE gel. The overall findings suggest that the GLY-based 5-FU-NEG holds promise for improving anti-melanoma activity.

New graphene-containing pharmaceutical formulations for infrared lamps-based phototherapy of skin cancer: In vitro validation and ex-vivo human skin permeation

Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most common form of human cancer, and treatment usually involves surgery, with alternative strategies being needed. We propose the use of carbopol hydrogels (HG) for topical administration of nanographene oxide (GOn) and partially-reduced nanographene oxide (p-rGOn) for photothermal therapy (PTT) of BCC. GOn and p-rGOn incorporated into the HG present lateral sizes ∼200 nm, being stable for 8 months. After 20 min irradiation with an infrared (IR) photothermal therapy lamp (15.70 mW cm-2), GOn-HG increased temperature to 44.7 °C, while p-rGOn-HG reached 47.0 °C. Human skin fibroblasts (HFF-1) cultured with both hydrogels (250 μg mL-1) maintained their morphology and viability. After 20 min IR irradiation, p-rGOn HG (250 μg mL-1) completely eradicated skin cancer cells (A-431). Ex vivo human skin permeability tests showed that the materials can successfully achieve therapeutic concentrations (250 μg mL-1) inside the skin, in 2.0 h for GO HG or 0.5 h for p-rGOn HG.

Impact of Resistance on Therapeutic Design: A Moran Model of Cancer Growth

Resistance of cancers to treatments, such as chemotherapy, largely arise due to cell mutations. These mutations allow cells to resist apoptosis and inevitably lead to recurrence and often progression to more aggressive cancer forms. Sustained-low dose therapies are being considered as an alternative over maximum tolerated dose treatments, whereby a smaller drug dosage is given over a longer period of time. However, understanding the impact that the presence of treatment-resistant clones may have on these new treatment modalities is crucial to validating them as a therapeutic avenue. In this study, a Moran process is used to capture stochastic mutations arising in cancer cells, inferring treatment resistance. The model is used to predict the probability of cancer recurrence given varying treatment modalities. The simulations predict that sustained-low dose therapies would be virtually ineffective for a cancer with a non-negligible probability of developing a sub-clone with resistance tendencies. Furthermore, calibrating the model to in vivo measurements for breast cancer treatment with Herceptin, the model suggests that standard treatment regimens are ineffective in this mouse model. Using a simple Moran model, it is possible to explore the likelihood of treatment success given a non-negligible probability of treatment resistant mutations and suggest more robust therapeutic schedules.

Nanocomposite Hydrogels-A Promising Approach towards Enhanced Bioavailability and Controlled Drug Delivery

Nanotechnology has emerged as the eminent focus of today's research to overcome challenges related to conventional drug delivery systems. A wide spectrum of novel delivery systems has been investigated to improve the therapeutic outcomes of drugs. The polymer-based nanocomposite hydrogels (NCHs) that have evolved as efficient carriers for controlled drug delivery are of particular interest in this regard. Nanocomposites amalgamate the properties of both nanoparticles (NPs) as well as hydrogels, exhibiting superior functionalities over conventional hydrogels. This multiple functionality is based upon advanced mechanical, electrical, optical as well as magnetic properties. Here is a brief overview of the various types of nanocomposites, such as NCHs based on Carbon-bearing nanomaterials, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, and metal and metal-oxide NPs. Accordingly, this article will review numerous ways of preparing these NCHs with particular emphasis on the vast biomedical applications displayed by them in numerous fields such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, wound healing, bioprinting, biosensing, imaging and gene silencing, cancer therapy, antibacterial therapy, etc. Moreover, various features can be tuned, based on the final application, by controlling the chemical composition of hydrogel network, which may also influence the released conduct. Subsequently, the recent work and future prospects of this newly emerging class of drug delivery system have been enlisted.

Graphene Oxide-Functionalized Bacterial Cellulose-Gelatin Hydrogel with Curcumin Release and Kinetics: In Vitro Biological Evaluation

Biopolymer-based bioactive hydrogels are excellent wound dressing materials for wound healing applications. They have excellent properties, including hydrophilicity, tunable mechanical and morphological properties, controllable functionality, biodegradability, and desirable biocompatibility. The bioactive hydrogels were fabricated from bacterial cellulose (BC), gelatin, and graphene oxide (GO). The GO-functionalized-BC (GO-f-BC) was synthesized by a hydrothermal method and chemically crosslinked with bacterial cellulose and gelatin using tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) as a crosslinker. The structural, morphological, and wettability properties were studied using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and a universal testing machine (UTM), respectively. The swelling analysis was conducted in different media, and aqueous medium exhibited maximum hydrogel swelling compared to other media. The Franz diffusion method was used to study curcumin (Cur) release (Max = 69.32%, Min = 49.32%), and Cur release kinetics followed the Hixson-Crowell model. Fibroblast (3T3) cell lines were employed to determine the cell viability and proliferation to bioactive hydrogels. Antibacterial activities of bioactive hydrogels were evaluated against infection-causing bacterial strains. Bioactive hydrogels are hemocompatible due to their less than 0.5% hemolysis against fresh human blood. The results show that bioactive hydrogels can be potential wound dressing materials for wound healing applications.

Skin cancer: understanding the journey of transformation from conventional to advanced treatment approaches

Skin cancer is a global threat to the healthcare system and is estimated to incline tremendously in the next 20 years, if not diagnosed at an early stage. Even though it is curable at an early stage, novel drug identification, clinical success, and drug resistance is another major challenge. To bridge the gap and bring effective treatment, it is important to understand the etiology of skin carcinoma, the mechanism of cell proliferation, factors affecting cell growth, and the mechanism of drug resistance. The current article focusses on understanding the structural diversity of skin cancers, treatments available till date including phytocompounds, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photothermal therapy, surgery, combination therapy, molecular targets associated with cancer growth and metastasis, and special emphasis on nanotechnology-based approaches for downregulating the deleterious disease. A detailed analysis with respect to types of nanoparticles and their scope in overcoming multidrug resistance as well as associated clinical trials has been discussed.

Antiproliferative Imidazo-Pyrazole-Based Hydrogel: A Promising Approach for the Development of New Treatments for PLX-Resistant Melanoma

Aiming at developing a dermal formulation against melanoma, the synthesized imidazo-pyrazoles 2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-imidazo[1,2-b]pyrazole-7-carboxylic acid (3-methoxy-4-phenoxy-benzylidene)-hydrazide (4G) and 2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-imidazo[1,2-b]pyrazole-7-carboxylic acid (4-benzyloxy-3-methoxy-benzylidene)-hydrazide (4I) were screened on patient-isolated melanoma cells (MEOV NT) and on Vemurafenib (PLX4032)-resistant (MEOV PLX-R) ones. Since 4I on MEOV PLX-R cells was 1.4-fold more effective than PLX, a hydrogel formulation containing 4I (R4HG-4I) was prepared in parallel with an empty R4-based hydrogel (R4HG) using a synthesized antibacterial resin (R4) as gelling agent. Thanks to its high hydrophilicity, porosity (85%), and excellent swelling capability (552%), R4 allowed to achieve R4HG and R4HG-4I with high equilibrium degree of swelling (EDS) and equilibrium water content (EWC). Chemometric-assisted ATR-FTIR analyses confirmed the chemical structure of swollen and fully dried (R4HG-D and R4HG-4I-D) hydrogels. The morphology of R4HG-D and R4HG-4I-D was examined by optical microscopy and SEM, while UV-vis analyses were carried out to obtain the drug loading (DL%) and the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) of R4HG-4I. Potentiometric titrations were performed to determine the equivalents of NH3+ in both R4HG and R4HG-4I. The swelling and water release profiles of both materials and related kinetics were assessed by equilibrium swelling rate and water loss studies, respectively, while their biodegradability over time was assessed by in vitro degradation experiments determining their mass loss. Rheological experiments established that both R4HG and R4HG-4I are shear-thinning Bingham pseudoplastic fluids with low yield stress, thus assuring easy spreadability in a future topical application. Release studies evidenced a sustained and quantitative release of 4I governed mainly by diffusion. Upon favorable results from further experiments in a more realistic 3D model of melanoma, R4HG-4I could represent a starting point to develop new topical therapeutic options to adjuvate the treatments of melanoma cells also when resistant to currently available drugs.

Design and Study of Nanoceria Modified by 5-Fluorouracil for Gel and Polymer Dermal Film Preparation

In this work we studied nanoceria (CeO2NPs) and nanoceria modified by 5-fluorouracil (5FU) as potential APIs. Nanoceria were synthesized by precipitation in a matrix of hydroxyethyl cellulose or hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, using cerium (III) nitrate and meglumine. Nanoceria properties were estimated by UV, FTIR and X-ray photoelectron spectra; scanning electron and atomic force microscopy; powder X-ray diffraction patterns and energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis. The cytotoxicity of nanoceria and polymer-protected nanoparticles was evaluated using the established cell line NCTC clone 929 (C3H/An mouse, subcutaneous connective tissue, clone of L. line). The morphology and metabolic activity of nanoparticles at 10 μg∙mL-1 of cells was not significant. In addition, the cytotoxic effects of nanoceria were assessed on two human colorectal cancer cell lines (HT29 and HCT116), murine melanoma B16 cells and normal human skin fibroblasts. An inhibitory effect was shown for HCT116 human colorectal cancer cells. The IC50 values for pure CeO2NPs and CeO2NPs-5FU were 219.0 ± 45.6 μg∙mL-1 and 89.2 ± 14.0 μg∙mL-1, respectively. On the other hand, the IC50 of 5FU in the combination of CeO2NPs-5FU was 2-fold higher than that of pure 5FU, amounting to 5.0 nmol∙mL-1. New compositions of nanoceria modified by 5-fluorouracil in a polymer matrix were designed as a dermal polymer film and gel. The permeability of the components was studied using a Franz cell.

Design and Study of Nanoceria Modified by 5-Fluorouracil for Gel and Polymer Dermal Film Preparation

In this work we studied nanoceria (CeO2NPs) and nanoceria modified by 5-fluorouracil (5FU) as potential APIs. Nanoceria were synthesized by precipitation in a matrix of hydroxyethyl cellulose or hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, using cerium (III) nitrate and meglumine. Nanoceria properties were estimated by UV, FTIR and X-ray photoelectron spectra; scanning electron and atomic force microscopy; powder X-ray diffraction patterns and energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis. The cytotoxicity of nanoceria and polymer-protected nanoparticles was evaluated using the established cell line NCTC clone 929 (C3H/An mouse, subcutaneous connective tissue, clone of L. line). The morphology and metabolic activity of nanoparticles at 10 μg∙mL−1 of cells was not significant. In addition, the cytotoxic effects of nanoceria were assessed on two human colorectal cancer cell lines (HT29 and HCT116), murine melanoma B16 cells and normal human skin fibroblasts. An inhibitory effect was shown for HCT116 human colorectal cancer cells. The IC50 values for pure CeO2NPs and CeO2NPs-5FU were 219.0 ± 45.6 μg∙mL−1 and 89.2 ± 14.0 μg∙mL−1, respectively. On the other hand, the IC50 of 5FU in the combination of CeO2NPs-5FU was 2-fold higher than that of pure 5FU, amounting to 5.0 nmol∙mL−1. New compositions of nanoceria modified by 5-fluorouracil in a polymer matrix were designed as a dermal polymer film and gel. The permeability of the components was studied using a Franz cell.

PCL/gelatin nanofibers embedded with doxorubicin-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles/silver nanoparticles as an antibacterial and anti-melanoma cancer

Melanoma cancer wound healing is critical and complex and poses a significant challenge to researchers. Drug resistance, adverse side effects, and inefficient localization of chemotherapeutic drugs limit common treatment strategies in melanoma cancer. Using drug delivery nanostructures with low side effects and high efficiency, besides having antibacterial and antiseptic properties, can effectively repair the damage caused by the disease. To this end, this study aimed to develop a drug delivery nanosystem based on doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded amine-functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), linked with green synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). Characterization methods including microscopic methods and X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed the synthesis and functionalization of the well-dispersed nanoparticles with nanosized and uniform structures. The poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) nanofibers as a strong scaffold were produced by the blow spinning method and DOX-loaded nanoparticles were blow spun on PCL nanofibers along with gelatin solution. The resulting nanosystem including nanofibers and nanoparticles (NFs/NPS) showed a fine loading percent with a proper release profile of DOX and AgNPs and low hemolysis activity. Moreover, besides preventing infection by AgNPs, the DOX-loaded NFs/NPs could effectively destroy melanoma cancer cells. The attachment of normal cells to the nanoparticles-loaded nanofibers scaffold revealed the possibility of healing wounds caused by melanoma cancer.

Polymer based dual drug delivery system for targeted treatment of fluoroquinolone resistant Staphylococcus aureus mediated infections

The present study attempts to treat S. aureus-induced soft skin infections using a combinatorial therapy with an antibiotic, Ciprofloxacin (CIP), and an efflux pump inhibitor 5-Nitro-2-(3-phenylpropoxy) pyridine (5-NPPP) through a smart hydrogel delivery system. The study aims to reduce the increasing rates of infections and antimicrobial resistance; therefore, an efflux pump inhibitor molecule is synthesized and delivered along with an antibiotic to re-sensitize the pathogen towards antibiotics and treat the infections. CIP-loaded polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hydrogels at varying concentrations were fabricated and optimized by a chemical cross-linking process, which exhibited sustained drug release for 5 days. The compound 5-NPPP loaded hydrogels provided linear drug release for 2 days, necessitating the need for the development of polymeric nanoparticles to alter the release drug pattern. 5-NPPP loaded Eudragit RSPO nanoparticles were prepared by modified nanoprecipitation-solvent evaporation method, which showed optimum average particle size of 230-280 nm with > 90% drug entrapment efficiency. The 5-NPPP polymeric nanoparticles loaded PVA hydrogels were fabricated to provide a predetermined sustained release of the compound to provide a synergistic effect. The selected 7% PVA hydrogels loaded with the dual drugs were evaluated using Balb/c mice models induced with S. aureus soft skin infections. The results of in vivo studies were evidence that the dual drugs loaded hydrogels were non-toxic and reduced the bacterial load causing re-sensitization towards antibiotics, which could initiate re-epithelization. The research concluded that the PVA hydrogels loaded with CIP and 5-NPPP nanoparticles could be an ideal and promising drug delivery system for treating S. aureus-induced skin infections.

GPP-TSAIII nanocomposite hydrogel-based photothermal ablation facilitates melanoma therapy

BACKGROUND

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising cancer treatment, but its application is limited by low photoconversion efficiency. In this study, we aimed to develop a novel graphene oxide (GO)-based nanocomposite hydrogel to improve the bioavailability of timosaponin AIII (TSAIII) while maximizing PTT efficacy and enhancing the antitumor effect.

METHODS

GO was modified via physical cross-linking with polyvinyl alcohol. The pore structure of the gel was adjusted by repeated freeze-thawing and the addition of polyethylene glycol 2000 to obtain a nanocomposite hydrogel (GPP). The GPP loaded with TSAIII constituted a GPP-TSAIII drug delivery system, and its efficacy was evaluated by in vitro cytotoxicity, apoptosis, migration, and uptake analyses, and in vivo antitumor studies.

RESULTS

The encapsulation rate of GPP-TSAIII was 66.36 ± 3.97%, with slower in vitro release and higher tumor cell uptake (6.4-fold) compared to TSAIII. GPP-TSAIII in combination with PTT showed better bioavailability and antitumor effects in vivo than did TSAIII, with a 1.9-fold higher tumor suppression rate than the TSAIII group.

CONCLUSIONS

GPP is a potential vehicle for delivery of TSAIII-like poor water-soluble anticancer drugs. The innovative PTT co-delivery system may serve as a safe and effective melanoma treatment platform for further anticancer translational purposes.

Fabrication of PCL/CMARX/GO Composite Nanofibrous Mats for Dye Adsorption: Wastewater Treatment

The effluents of industrial wastewater contain several toxic organic and inorganic pollutants that may contaminate clean and freshwater sources if untreated or poorly treated. These toxic pollutants include colors; hazardous compounds; surfactants; cosmetics; agrochemicals; pharmaceutical by-products; and agricultural, pharmaceutical, and medical contaminants. Treating wastewater has become a global problem. Many projects have been started in the last two decades to treat wastewater, resultant water pollution, and associated waste management problems. Adsorbants based on graphene oxide (GO) are viable wastewater treatment materials due to their adaptability, photocatalytic action, and capacity for self-assembly. Here, we report the fabrication of nanofibrous mats from polycaprolactone (PCL), carboxymethyl arabinoxylan (CMARX), and carboxyl-functionalized-graphene oxide using an electrospinning technique. The silver nanoparticles were loaded onto the mat to enhance their photocatalytic activity. These mats were characterized using different techniques, including Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and transmission electron microscope (TEM). The water contact angles were used to study their hydrophilic and hydrophobic behavior. The Langmuir isotherm model and adsorption kinetics were studied to evaluate their adsorption capabilities against methylene blue (MB). Sample 2 followed the Langmuir isotherm model (R² = 0.9939). Adsorption kinetics exhibited pseudo-second order behavior (R² = 0.9978) due to their maximum correlation coefficient values. MB has excellent adsorption at room temperature and the formation of the monolayer at the surface of the adsorption mat. An enhanced PO₄^3- and MB adsorption was observed, providing recyclability up to 4-5 times. Hence, the fabricated nanofibrous mat would be a potential candidate for more effective wastewater treatment applications.

Role of Graphene Oxide in Bacterial Cellulose-Gelatin Hydrogels for Wound Dressing Applications

Biopolymer-based hydrogels have several advantages, including robust mechanical tunability, high biocompatibility, and excellent optical properties. These hydrogels can be ideal wound dressing materials and advantageous to repair and regenerate skin wounds. In this work, we prepared composite hydrogels by blending gelatin and graphene oxide-functionalized bacterial cellulose (GO-f-BC) with tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS). The hydrogels were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscope (AFM), and water contact angle analyses to explore functional groups and their interactions, surface morphology, and wetting behavior, respectively. The swelling, biodegradation, and water retention were tested to respond to the biofluid. Maximum swelling was exhibited by GBG-1 (0.01 mg GO amount) in all media (aqueous = 1902.83%, PBS = 1546.63%, and electrolyte = 1367.32%). All hydrogels were hemocompatible, as their hemolysis was less than 0.5%, and blood coagulation time decreased as the hydrogel concentration and GO amount increased under in vitro standard conditions. These hydrogels exhibited unusual antimicrobial activities against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains. The cell viability and proliferation were increased with an increased GO amount, and maximum values were found for GBG-4 (0.04 mg GO amount) against fibroblast (3T3) cell lines. The mature and well-adhered cell morphology of 3T3 cells was found for all hydrogel samples. Based on all findings, these hydrogels would be a potential wound dressing skin material for wound healing applications.

New Methacrylated Biopolymer-Based Hydrogels as Localized Drug Delivery Systems in Skin Cancer Therapy

The aim of the present work was to obtain drug-loaded hydrogels based on combinations of dextran, chitosan/gelatin/xanthan, and poly (acrylamide) as a sustained and controlled release vehicle of Doxorubicin, a drug used in skin cancer therapy that is associated with severe side effects. Hydrogels for use as 3D hydrophilic networks with good manipulation characteristics were produced using methacrylated biopolymer derivatives and the methacrylate group's polymerization with synthetic monomers in the presence of a photo-initiator, under UV light stimulation (365 nm). Transformed infrared spectroscopy analysis (FT-IR) confirmed the hydrogels' network structure (natural-synthetic composition and photocrosslinking), while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirmed the microporous morphology. The hydrogels are swellable in simulated biological fluids and the material's morphology regulates the swelling properties: the maximum swelling degree was obtained for dextran-chitosan-based hydrogels because of their higher porosity and pore distribution. The hydrogels are bioadhesive on a biological simulating membrane, and values for the force of detachment and work of adhesion are recommended for applications on skin tissue. The Doxorubicin was loaded into the hydrogels and the drug was released by diffusion for all the resulting hydrogels, with small contributions from the hydrogel networks' relaxation. Doxorubicin-loaded hydrogels are efficient on keratinocytes tumor cells, the sustained released drug interrupting the cells' division and inducing cell apoptosis; we recommend the obtained materials for the topical treatment of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma.

Gel Formulations for Topical Treatment of Skin Cancer: A Review

Skin cancer, with all its variations, is the most common type of cancer worldwide. Chemotherapy by topical application is an attractive strategy because of the ease of application and non-invasiveness. At the same time, the delivery of antineoplastic agents through the skin is difficult because of their challenging physicochemical properties (solubility, ionization, molecular weight, melting point) and the barrier function of the stratum corneum. Various approaches have been applied in order to improve drug penetration, retention, and efficacy. This systematic review aims at identifying the most commonly used techniques for topical drug delivery by means of gel-based topical formulations in skin cancer treatment. The excipients used, the preparation approaches, and the methods characterizing gels are discussed in brief. The safety aspects are also highlighted. The combinatorial formulation of nanocarrier-loaded gels is also reviewed from the perspective of improving drug delivery characteristics. Some limitations and drawbacks in the identified strategies are also outlined and considered within the future scope of topical chemotherapy.

Examining the efficacy of localised gemcitabine therapy for the treatment of pancreatic cancer using a hybrid agent-based model

The prognosis for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) patients has not significantly improved in the past 3 decades, highlighting the need for more effective treatment approaches. Poor patient outcomes and lack of response to therapy can be attributed, in part, to a lack of uptake of perfusion of systemically administered chemotherapeutic drugs into the tumour. Wet-spun alginate fibres loaded with the chemotherapeutic agent gemcitabine have been developed as a potential tool for overcoming the barriers in delivery of systemically administrated drugs to the PDAC tumour microenvironment by delivering high concentrations of drug to the tumour directly over an extended period. While exciting, the practicality, safety, and effectiveness of these devices in a clinical setting requires further investigation. Furthermore, an in-depth assessment of the drug-release rate from these devices needs to be undertaken to determine whether an optimal release profile exists. Using a hybrid computational model (agent-based model and partial differential equation system), we developed a simulation of pancreatic tumour growth and response to treatment with gemcitabine loaded alginate fibres. The model was calibrated using in vitro and in vivo data and simulated using a finite volume method discretisation. We then used the model to compare different intratumoural implantation protocols and gemcitabine-release rates. In our model, the primary driver of pancreatic tumour growth was the rate of tumour cell division. We were able to demonstrate that intratumoural placement of gemcitabine loaded fibres was more effective than peritumoural placement. Additionally, we quantified the efficacy of different release profiles from the implanted fibres that have not yet been tested experimentally. Altogether, the model developed here is a tool that can be used to investigate other drug delivery devices to improve the arsenal of treatments available for PDAC and other difficult-to-treat cancers in the future.

Nano-scaled emulsion and nanogel containing Mentha pulegium essential oil: cytotoxicity on human melanoma cells and effects on apoptosis regulator genes

BACKGROUND

Topical drug delivery using nanoemulsions and nanogels is a promising approach to treating skin disorders such as melanoma.

METHODS

In this study, the chemical composition of Mentha pulegium essential oil with five major compounds, including pulegone (68.11%), l-menthone (8.83%), limonene (2.90%), iso-pulegone (2.69%), and iso-menthone (1.48%) was first identified using GC-MS (Gas chromatography-Mass Spectrometry) analysis. Afterward, a nano-scaled emulsion containing the essential oil with a droplet size of 7.70 ± 1 nm was prepared. Nanogel containing the essential oil was then prepared by adding (2% w/v) carboxymethyl cellulose to the nano-scaled emulsion. Moreover, the successful loading of M. pulegium essential oil in the nano-scaled emulsion and nanogel was confirmed using ATR-FTIR (Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier Transform InfraRed) analysis. Then, human A375 melanoma cells were treated with different concentrations of samples, the MTT assay evaluated cell viability, and cell apoptosis was confirmed by flow cytometry. In addition, the expression of apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes, including Bax and Bcl-2, was evaluated using the qPCR (quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction) technique.

RESULTS

The results showed that cell viability was reduced by 90 and 45% after treatment with 300 μg/mL of the nanogel and nano-scaled emulsion. As confirmed by flow cytometry, this effect was mediated by apoptosis. Furthermore, gene expression analysis showed up-regulation of Bax and down-regulation of Bcl-2 genes. Therefore, the prepared nanogel, with high efficacy, could be considered a potent anticancer agent for supplementary medicine and in vivo research.

The Use of Polymers to Enhance Post-Orthodontic Tooth Stability

Relapse after orthodontic treatment occurs at a rate of about 70 to 90%, and this phenomenon is an orthodontic issue that has not yet been resolved. Retention devices are one attempt at prevention, but they require a considerable amount of time. Most orthodontists continue to find it challenging to manage orthodontic relapse; therefore, additional research is required. In line with existing knowledge regarding the biological basis of relapse, biomedical engineering approaches to relapse regulation show promise. With so many possible uses in biomedical engineering, polymeric materials have long been at the forefront of the materials world. Orthodontics is an emerging field, and scientists are paying a great deal of attention to polymers because of their potential applications in this area. In recent years, the controlled release of bisphosphonate risedronate using a topically applied gelatin hydrogel has been demonstrated to be effective in reducing relapse. Simvastatin encapsulation in exosomes generated from periodontal ligament stem cells can promote simvastatin solubility and increase the inhibitory action of orthodontic relapse. Moreover, the local injection of epigallocatechin gallate-modified gelatin suppresses osteoclastogenesis and could be developed as a novel treatment method to modify tooth movement and inhibit orthodontic relapse. Furthermore, the intrasulcular administration of hydrogel carbonated hydroxyapatite-incorporated advanced platelet-rich fibrin has been shown to minimize orthodontic relapse. The objective of this review was to provide an overview of the use of polymer materials to reduce post-orthodontic relapse. We assume that bone remodeling is a crucial factor even though the exact process by which orthodontic correction is lost after retention is not fully known. Delivery of a polymer containing elements that altered osteoclast activity inhibited osteoclastogenesis and blocking orthodontic relapse. The most promising polymeric materials and their potential orthodontic uses for the prevention of orthodontic relapse are also discussed.

Scaffolds in the microbial resistant era: Fabrication, materials, properties and tissue engineering applications

Due to microbial infections dramatically affect cell survival and increase the risk of implant failure, scaffolds produced with antimicrobial materials are now much more likely to be successful. Multidrug-resistant infections without suitable prevention strategies are increasing at an alarming rate. The ability of cells to organize, develop, differentiate, produce a functioning extracellular matrix (ECM) and create new functional tissue can all be controlled by careful control of the extracellular microenvironment. This review covers the present state of advanced strategies to develop scaffolds with antimicrobial properties for bone, oral tissue, skin, muscle, nerve, trachea, cardiac and other tissue engineering applications. The review focuses on the development of antimicrobial scaffolds against bacteria and fungi using a wide range of materials, including polymers, biopolymers, glass, ceramics and antimicrobials agents such as antibiotics, antiseptics, antimicrobial polymers, peptides, metals, carbon nanomaterials, combinatorial strategies, and includes discussions on the antimicrobial mechanisms involved in these antimicrobial approaches. The toxicological aspects of these advanced scaffolds are also analyzed to ensure future technological transfer to clinics. The main antimicrobial methods of characterizing scaffolds’ antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties are described. The production methods of these porous supports, such as electrospinning, phase separation, gas foaming, the porogen method, polymerization in solution, fiber mesh coating, self-assembly, membrane lamination, freeze drying, 3D printing and bioprinting, among others, are also included in this article. These important advances in antimicrobial materials-based scaffolds for regenerative medicine offer many new promising avenues to the material design and tissue-engineering communities.

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Antibacterial, antifungal and antibiofilm scaffolds.

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Antimicrobial scaffold fabrication techniques.

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Antimicrobial biomaterials for tissue engineering applications.

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Antimicrobial characterization methods of scaffolds.

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Bone, oral tissue, skin, muscle, nerve, trachea, cardiac, among other applications.

Multifunctional Bioactive Scaffolds from ARX-g-(Zn@rGO)-HAp for Bone Tissue Engineering: In Vitro Antibacterial, Antitumor, and Biocompatibility Evaluations

Advanced biomaterials are required with enhanced antibacterial and anticancer activities to obtain desirable biocompatibility during and after scaffold implantation in tissue engineering. Here, we report the development of a nanosystem by the hydrothermal method using different zinc (Zn) amounts and reduced graphene oxide (GO). Arabinoxylan, the nanosystem (Zn@rGO), and nanohydroxyapatite polymeric nanocomposites ARX-g-(Zn@rGO)/HAp were prepared by the free radical polymerization method, and porous bioactive scaffolds were fabricated via the freeze-drying technique. The structural, morphological, and elemental analyses of the bioactive scaffolds were conducted using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. The wetting behavior was studied by a water contact meter and swelling in aqueous and phosphate-buffered saline solutions at 37 °C. The degradation was also studied in the phosphate-buffered saline solution at 37 °C. The increase in Zn content increased the pore size, and hydrophobic behavior shifted to hydrophilic (AGZ-1 = 131.40° at 0 s and 120.60° at 10 s to AGZ-1 = 81.30° at 0 s and 69.20° at 10 s) with the increase in contact time. Maximum swelling was observed in deionized water (AGZ-1 = 52.87%, AGZ-4 = 90.20%), followed by phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; AGZ-1 = 44.80%, AGZ-4 = 67.90%) and electrolyte (AGZ-1 = 32.40%, AGZ-4 = 63.47%), and biodegradation in PBS media increased (AGZ-1 = 36.80%, AGZ-4 = 55.92%). Antimicrobial activities against severe infection-causing pathogens and antitumor activity against U87 cell lines showed exceptional results. Cell viability and cell proliferation studies were conducted against preosteoblast cell lines, and increased cell viability and proliferation were observed from AGZ-1 to AGZ-4. Antimicrobial and anticancer activities were enhanced with the increase of Zn content in the Zn@rGO system. The bioactive scaffolds with different formulations could be potential biomaterials to treat and regenerate defected bone tissue.

Exosomes Derived from Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Alleviate Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury and Promote Survival of Skin Flaps in Rats

Free tissue flap transplantation is a classic and important method for the clinical repair of tissue defects. However, ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury can affect the success rate of skin flap transplantation. We used a free abdomen flap rat model to explore the protective effects of exosomes derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs-exosomes) against the IR injury of the skin flap. Exosomes were injected through the tail vein and the flaps were observed and obtained on day 7. We observed that BMSCs-exosomes significantly reduced the necrotic lesions of the skin flap. Furthermore, BMSCs-exosomes relieved oxidative stress and reduced the levels of inflammatory factors. Apoptosis was evaluated via the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay and Western blot analysis of Bax, Bcl-2. Simultaneously, BMSCs-exosomes promoted the formation of new blood vessels in the IR flap, as confirmed by the increased expression level of VEGFA and the fluorescence co-staining of CD31 and PCNA. Additionally, BMSCs-exosomes considerably increased proliferation and migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells and promoted angiogenesis in vitro. BMSCs-exosomes could be a promising cell-free therapeutic candidate to reduce IR injury and promote the survival of skin flaps.

Thermo-Sensitive Poly (N-isopropylacrylamide-co-polyacrylamide) Hydrogel for pH-Responsive Therapeutic Delivery

Stimuli-response polymeric nanoparticles have emerged as a carrier system for various types of therapeutic delivery. In this study, we prepared a dual pH- and thermo-sensitive copolymer hydrogel (HG) system (PNIPAm-co-PAAm HG), using N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIPAm) and acrylamide (AAm) as comonomers. The synthesized PNIPAm-co-PAAm HG was characterized using various instrumental characterizations. Moreover, the PNIPAm-co-PAAm HG's thermoresponsive phase transition behavior was investigated, and the results showed that the prepared HG responds to temperature changes. In vitro drug loading and release behavior of PNIPAm-co-PAAm HG was investigated using Curcumin (Cur) as the model cargo under different pH and temperature conditions. The PNIPAm-co-PAAm HG showed pH and temperature-responsive drug release behavior and demonstrated about 65% Cur loading efficiency. A nearly complete release of the loaded Cur occurred from the PNIPAm-co-PAAm HG over 4 h at pH 5.5 and 40 °C. The cytotoxicity study was performed on a liver cancer cell line (HepG2 cells), which revealed that the prepared PNIPAm-co-PAAm HG showed good biocompatibility, suggesting that it could be applied as a drug delivery carrier. Moreover, the in vitro cytocompatibility test (MTT assay) results revealed that the PNIPAm-co-PAAm HG is biocompatible. Therefore, the PNIPAm-co-PAAm HG has the potential to be useful in the delivery of drugs in solid tumor-targeted therapy.

Bioactive scaffold (sodium alginate)-g-(nHAp@SiO2@GO) for bone tissue engineering

Globally, people suffering from bone disorders are steadily increasing and bone tissue engineering is an advanced approach to treating fractured and defected bone tissues. In this study, we have prepared polymeric nanocomposite by free-radical polymerization from sodium alginate, hydroxyapatite, and silica with different GO amounts. The porous scaffolds were fabricated using the freeze drying technique. The structural, morphological, mechanical, and wetting investigation was conducted by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope, universal tensile machine, and water contact angle characterization techniques. The swelling, biodegradation, and water retention were also studied. The biological studies were performed (cell viability, cell adherence, proliferation, and mineralization) against osteoblast cell lines. Scaffolds have exhibited different pore morphology SAG-1 (pore size = 414.61 ± 56 μm and porosity = 81.45 ± 2.17 %) and SAG-4 (pore size = 195.97 ± 82 μm and porosity = 53.82 ± 2.45 %). They have different mechanical behavior as SAG-1 has the least compression strength and compression modulus 2.14 ± 2.35 and 16.51 ± 1.27 MPa. However, SAG-4 has maximum compression strength and compression modulus 13.67 ± 2.63 and 96.16 ± 1.97 MPa with wetting behavior 80.70° and 58.70°, respectively. Similarly, SAG-1 exhibited the least and SAG-4 presented maximum apatite mineral formation, cell adherence, cell viability, and cell proliferation against mouse pre-osteoblast cell lines. The increased GO amount provides different multifunctional materials with different characteristics. Hence, the fabricated scaffolds could be potential scaffold materials to treat and regenerate fracture bone tissues in bone tissue engineering.

A Study on the Effect of Nanoscale MgO and Hydrogen Bonding in Nanofiber Mats for the Controlled Drug Release along with In Vitro Breast Cancer Cell Line and Antimicrobial Studies

Nanosized metal oxide-incorporated drug carriers have received significant attention due to their biocompatibility, mechanical strength, controlled drug release, and biodegradability. Herein, an attempt was made to fabricate polycaprolactone-based electrospun nanofiber mats involving the 5-fluorouracil (5Fu) drug, MgO nanoparticle, methyl cellulose, and polyethylene glycol. The chemical interactions, surface wettability, mechanical properties, structural and morphological changes, and thermal stability were studied by the respective analyses. The ionic interaction between 5Fu, MgO, and polymers were found to be responsible for the controlled drug release. Zero-order kinetic and model data also revealed that a controlled drug release pattern was observed in a period of 16 days. Furthermore, the nanofiber mats were subjected to cytotoxicity studies against MDA-MB-231 cancer cell line and the results showed higher cytotoxicity in a short time of 24 h and less toxicity to normal L929 fibroblast cell line. The apoptosis in cancer cell lines was also tested by AO/PI staining assay and confirmed by fluorescence microscopy. In addition, the growth inhibition of several bacterial and fungal strains was tested for the mats and the results exhibited good inhibition activity. Hence, the reported nanofiber drug carrier was found to be an efficient implant for the controlled release of anticancer drug along with other significant properties.

Formulation and Evaluation of Chitosan-Gelatin Thermosensitive Hydrogels Containing 5FU-Alginate Nanoparticles for Skin Delivery

(1) Background: Chitosan-gelatin-based thermosensitive hydrogel containing 5FU-alginate nanoparticles was formulated for the effective and sustained delivery of 5FU to the skin. (2) Methods: Alginate, a polysaccharide was used for the formulation of nanoparticles using a spray drying technique. Size, zeta potential, and surface morphology were investigated using a zetasizer and scanning electron microscope. The hydrogel was fabricated using chitosan and gelatin. Several important analyses were used to characterize these prepared topical hydrogels. The pH, visual transparency, rheological behavior, and swelling index of the prepared hydrogels were evaluated. The in vitro release studies were performed at different pH (5.5 and 7.4) and temperature (32 and 37 °C) conditions using a Franz diffusion cell. Ex vivo permeation and in vivo studies were performed using Sprague Dawley rats. (3) Results: Results show that spherical nanoparticles were produced at sizes of 202−254 nm and with zeta potentials of −43 to −38 mV. The prepared nanoparticles were successfully incorporated into chitosan-gelatin-based hydrogels using a glycerol 2-phosphate disodium salt hydrates crosslinker. Drug polymers and excipients compatibility and formulation of hydrogels was confirmed by ATR-FTIR results. The pH of the prepared hydrogels was in accordance with the skin pH. The viscosity of prepared hydrogel increased with temperature increase and phase transition (sol-gel transition) occurred at 34 °C. The release of drug was sustained in case of nanoparticles incorporated hydrogels (5FU-Alg-Np-HG) as compared to nanoparticles (5FU-Alg-Np) and simple hydrogels (5FU-HG) (ANOVA; p < 0.05). The premature and initial burst release of 5FU was prevented using 5FU-Alg-Np-HG. The release mechanism of 5FU from the 5FU-Alg-Np-HG diffusion was followed by swelling and erosion, as suggested by Korsmeyer-Peppas model. The prepared hydrogel proved to be non-irritant. Ex vivo permeation study across rat’s skin suggests that permeability of nanoparticles (5FU-Alg-Np) was higher than the 5FU-Alg-Np-HG (ANOVA; p < 0.05). However, skin-related drug retention of 5FU-Alg-Np-HG was significantly higher than the 5FU solution, 5FU-Alg-Np, and 5FU-HG (ANOVA; p < 0.05). This was due to swelling of hydrogels in the lower layers of skin where the temperature is 37 °C. The higher concentration of 5FU in the skin is helpful for treatment of local skin cancer, such as melanoma, and actinic keratosis. In vivo results also confirmed maximum AUC, t1/2, and skin-related drug retention of 5FU-Alg-Np-HG. (4) Conclusions: Chitosan-gelatin-based hydrogels containing 5FU-Alg-Np possess exceptional properties, and can be used for the sustained delivery of 5FU for the treatment of local skin cancers.

Isoliquiritigenin Nanoemulsion Preparation by Combined Sonication and Phase-Inversion Composition Method: In Vitro Anticancer Activities

Isoliquiritigenin (ILQ) has a number of biological activities such as antitumor and anti-inflammatory effects. However, biomedical applications of ILQ are impeded by its poor aqueous solubility. Therefore, in this research, we prepared a novel ILQ-loaded nanoemulsion, i.e., ILQ-NE, which consisted of Labrafil® M 1944 CS (oil), Cremophor® EL (surfactant), ILQ, and phosphate-buffered saline, by employing a combined sonication (high-energy) and phase-inversion composition (low-energy) method (denoted as the SPIC method). The ILQ-NE increased the ILQ solubility ~1000 times more than its intrinsic solubility. It contained spherical droplets with a mean diameter of 44.10 ± 0.28 nm and a narrow size distribution. The ILQ loading capacity was 4%. The droplet size of ILQ-NE remained unchanged during storage at 4 °C for 56 days. Nanoemulsion encapsulation effectively prevented ILQ from degradation under ultraviolet light irradiation, and enhanced the ILQ in vitro release rate. In addition, ILQ-NE showed higher cellular uptake and superior cytotoxicity to 4T1 cancer cells compared with free ILQ formulations. In conclusion, ILQ-NE may facilitate the biomedical application of ILQ, and the SPIC method presents an attractive avenue for bridging the merits and eliminating the shortcomings of traditional high-energy methods and low-energy methods.

3D Bioprinting: An Enabling Technology to Understand Melanoma

Melanoma is a potentially fatal cancer with rising incidence over the last 50 years, associated with enhanced sun exposure and ultraviolet radiation. Its incidence is highest in people of European descent and the ageing population. There are multiple clinical and epidemiological variables affecting melanoma incidence and mortality, such as sex, ethnicity, UV exposure, anatomic site, and age. Although survival has improved in recent years due to advances in targeted and immunotherapies, new understanding of melanoma biology and disease progression is vital to improving clinical outcomes. Efforts to develop three-dimensional human skin equivalent models using biofabrication techniques, such as bioprinting, promise to deliver a better understanding of the complexity of melanoma and associated risk factors. These 3D skin models can be used as a platform for patient specific models and testing therapeutics.

pH-Responsive PVA/BC-f-GO Dressing Materials for Burn and Chronic Wound Healing with Curcumin Release Kinetics

Polymeric materials have been essential biomaterials to develop hydrogels as wound dressings for sustained drug delivery and chronic wound healing. The microenvironment for wound healing is created by biocompatibility, bioactivity, and physicochemical behavior. Moreover, a bacterial infection often causes the healing process. The bacterial cellulose (BC) was functionalized using graphene oxide (GO) by hydrothermal method to have bacterial cellulose-functionalized-Graphene oxide (BC-f-GO). A simple blending method was used to crosslink BC-f-GO with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) by tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) as a crosslinker. The structural, morphological, wetting, and mechanical tests were conducted using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning electron microscope (SEM), water contact angle, and a Universal testing machine (UTM). The release of Silver-sulphadiazine and drug release kinetics were studied at various pH levels and using different mathematical models (zero-order, first-order, Higuchi, Hixson, Korsmeyer–Peppas, and Baker–Lonsdale). The antibacterial properties were conducted against Gram-positive and Gram-negative severe infection-causing pathogens. These composite hydrogels presented potential anticancer activities against the U87 cell line by an increased GO amount. The result findings show that these composite hydrogels have physical-mechanical and inherent antimicrobial properties and controlled drug release, making them an ideal approach for skin wound healing. As a result, these hydrogels were discovered to be an ideal biomaterial for skin wound healing.

F-GO/sodium alginate composite hydrogels for tissue regeneration and antitumor applications

Biopolymers have attracted tremendous attention for wound applications. Since sodium alginate is a biopolymer, they offer excellent therapeutic options with long-term drug release and low side effects. To prepare multifunctional composite hydrogels with anticancer and tissue regeneration capabilities, sodium alginate (SA) and graphene oxide (GO) were covalently linked and crosslinked with tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) by the solvothermal method. The structural and morphological results show that the hydrogels exhibit the desired functionality and porosity. The swelling of hydrogels in an aqueous and PBS medium was investigated. SGT-4 had the highest swelling in both aqueous and PBS media. Swelling and biodegradation of the hydrogel were inversely related. The drug release of SGT-4 was determined in different pH media (pH 6.4, 7.4, and 8.4) and the kinetics of drug release was determined according to the Higuchi model (R2 = 0.93587). Antibacterial activities were evaluated against severe infectious agents. Uppsala (U87) and osteoblast (MC3T3-E1) cell lines were used to determine the anticancer and biocompatibility of the composite hydrogels, respectively. These results suggest that the composite hydrogels could be used as wound dressings.

Smart and pH-sensitive rGO/Arabinoxylan/chitosan composite for wound dressing: In-vitro drug delivery, antibacterial activity, and biological activities

Carbohydrate polymers are biological macromolecules that have sparked a lot of interest in wound healing due to their outstanding antibacterial properties and sustained drug release. Arabinoxylan (ARX), Chitosan (CS), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sheets were combined and crosslinked using tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) as a crosslinker to fabricate composite hydrogels and assess their potential in wound dressing for skin wound healing. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and biological assays were used to evaluate the composite hydrogels. FTIR validated the effective fabrication of the composite hydrogels. The rough morphologies of the composite hydrogels were revealed by SEM and AFM (as evident from the Ra values). ATC-4 was discovered to have the roughest surface. TEM revealed strong homogeneous anchoring of the rGO to the polymer matrix. However, with higher amount of rGO agglomeration was detected. The % swelling at various pHs (1-13) revealed that the hydrogels were pH-sensitive. The controlled release profile for the antibacterial drug (Silver sulfadiazine) evaluated at various pH values (4.5, 6.8, and 7.4) in PBS solution and 37 °C using the Franz diffusion method revealed maximal drug release at pH 7.4 and 37 °C. The antibacterial efficacy of the composite hydrogels against pathogens that cause serious skin diseases varied. The MC3T3-E1 cell adhered, proliferated, and differentiated well on the composite hydrogels. MC3T3-E1 cell also illustrated excellent viability (91%) and proper cylindrical morphologies on the composite hydrogels. Hence, the composite hydrogels based on ARX, CS, and rGO are promising biomaterials for treating and caring for skin wounds.

Antibacterial and Hemocompatible pH-Responsive Hydrogel for Skin Wound Healing Application: In Vitro Drug Release

The treatment of successive skin wounds necessitates meticulous medical procedures. In the care and treatment of skin wounds, hydrogels produced from natural polymers with controlled drug release play a crucial role. Arabinoxylan is a well-known and widely available biological macromolecule. We produced various formulations of blended composite hydrogels (BCHs) from arabinoxylan (ARX), carrageenan (CG), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) using and cross-linked them with an optimal amount of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS). The structural, morphological, and mechanical behavior of the BCHs samples were determined using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning electron microscope (SEM), mechanical testing, and wetting, respectively. The swelling and degradation assays were performed in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution and aqueous media. Maximum swelling was observed at pH 7 and the least swelling in basic pH regions. All composite hydrogels were found to be hemocompatible. In vitro, silver sulfadiazine release profile in PBS solution was analyzed via the Franz diffusion method, and maximum drug release (87.9%) was observed in 48 h. The drug release kinetics was studied against different mathematical models (zero-order, first-order, Higuchi, Hixson-Crowell, Korsmeyer-Peppas, and Baker-Lonsdale models) and compared their regression coefficient (R2) values. It was observed that drug release follows the Baker-Lonsdale model, as it has the highest value (0.989) of R2. Hence, the obtained results indicated that, due to optimized swelling, wetting, and degradation, the blended composite hydrogel BCH-3 could be an essential wound dressing biomaterial for sustained drug release for skin wound care and treatment.

Development of Antibacterial, Degradable and pH-Responsive Chitosan/Guar Gum/Polyvinyl Alcohol Blended Hydrogels for Wound Dressing

The present research is based on the fabrication preparation of CS/PVA/GG blended hydrogel with nontoxic tetra orthosilicate (TEOS) for sustained paracetamol release. Different TEOS percentages were used because of their nontoxic behavior to study newly designed hydrogels' crosslinking and physicochemical properties. These hydrogels were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and wetting to determine the functional, surface morphology, hydrophilic, or hydrophobic properties. The swelling analysis in different media, degradation in PBS, and drug release kinetics were conducted to observe their response against corresponding media. The FTIR analysis confirmed the components added and crosslinking between them, and surface morphology confirmed different surface and wetting behavior due to different crosslinking. In various solvents, including water, buffer, and electrolyte solutions, the swelling behaviour of hydrogel was investigated and observed that TEOS amount caused less hydrogel swelling. In acidic pH, hydrogels swell the most, while they swell the least at pH 7 or higher. These hydrogels are pH-sensitive and appropriate for controlled drug release. These hydrogels demonstrated that, as the ionic concentration was increased, swelling decreased due to decreased osmotic pressure in various electrolyte solutions. The antimicrobial analysis revealed that these hydrogels are highly antibacterial against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus) and Gram negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) bacterial strains. The drug release mechanism was 98% in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) media at pH 7.4 in 140 min. To analyze drug release behaviour, the drug release kinetics was assessed against different mathematical models (such as zero and first order, Higuchi, Baker-Lonsdale, Hixson, and Peppas). It was found that hydrogel (CPG2) follows the Peppas model with the highest value of regression (R2 = 0.98509). Hence, from the results, these hydrogels could be a potential biomaterial for wound dressing in biomedical applications.

Chitosan/Poly Vinyl Alcohol/Graphene Oxide Based pH-Responsive Composite Hydrogel Films: Drug Release, Anti-Microbial and Cell Viability Studies

The composite hydrogels were produced using the solution casting method due to the non-toxic and biocompatible nature of chitosan (CS)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). The best composition was chosen and crosslinked with tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), after which different amounts of graphene oxide (GO) were added to develop composite hydrogels. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and contact angle was used to analyze the hydrogels. The samples were also evaluated for swelling abilities in various mediums. The drug release profile was studied in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) at a pH of 7.4. To predict the mechanism of drug release, the data were fitted into kinetic models. Finally, antibacterial activity and cell viability data were obtained. FTIR studies revealed the successful synthesis of CS/PVA hydrogels and GO/CS/PVA in hydrogel composite. SEM showed no phase separation of the polymers, whereas AFM showed a decrease in surface roughness with an increase in GO content. 100 µL of crosslinker was the critical concentration at which the sample displayed excellent swelling and preserved its structure. Both the crosslinked and composite hydrogel showed good swelling. The most acceptable mechanism of drug release is diffusion-controlled, and it obeys Fick's law of diffusion for drug released. The best fitting of the zero-order, Hixson-Crowell and Higuchi models supported our assumption. The GO/CS/PVA hydrogel composite showed better antibacterial and cell viability behaviors. They can be better biomaterials in biomedical applications.

R, Sharma S. Neuroprotective Ability of Apocynin Loaded Nanoparticles (APO-NPs) as NADPH Oxidase (NOX)-Mediated ROS Modulator for Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Oxidative Neuronal Injuries

Apocynin (APO) is a known multi-enzymatic complexed compound, employed as a viable NADPH oxidase (NOX) inhibitor, extensively used in both traditional and modern-day therapeutic strategies to combat neuronal disorders. However, its therapeutic efficacy is limited by lower solubility and lesser bioavailability; thus, a suitable nanocarrier system to overcome such limitations is needed. The present study is designed to fabricate APO-loaded polymeric nanoparticles (APO-NPs) to enhance its therapeutic efficacy and sustainability in the biological system. The optimized APO NPs in the study exhibited 103.6 ± 6.8 nm and -13.7 ± 0.43 mV of particle size and zeta potential, respectively, along with further confirmation by TEM. In addition, the antioxidant (AO) abilities quantified by DPPH and nitric oxide scavenging assays exhibited comparatively higher AO potential of APO-NPs than APO alone. An in-vitro release profile displayed a linear diffusion pattern of zero order kinetics for APO from the NPs, followed by its cytotoxicity evaluation on the PC12 cell line, which revealed minimal toxicity with higher cell viability, even after treatment with a stress inducer (H2O2). The stability of APO-NPs after six months showed minimal AO decline in comparison to APO only, indicating that the designed nano-formulation enhanced therapeutic efficacy for modulating NOX-mediated ROS generation.