Impact of the perceived threat of COVID-19 on variety-seeking

Why confidence leads to swifter tertiary education choices: A qualitative study of the international tertiary education industry of Australia

This paper investigates international students' confidence as a base for imminent tertiary education decisions. International students are a highly sought-after commodity, particularly during and after a global pandemic when the income streams of tertiary education providers are limited. In-depth interviews were conducted with students who sought guidance towards an international study experience to explore the guiding research questions, (1) how does confidence impact tertiary education decisions of international students and (2) what is the relationship between confidence and time to make a tertiary education decision? Set within the context of the international tertiary education industry of Australia, the original contribution stems from identifying that guidance towards an international study experience is affected by confidence in; guidance counselors, the brand name of the university, and the tertiary education decision itself. The identified confidence characteristics in this study have an inverse relationship with the length of time taken for the students' decision-making process. This leads to swifter finalizations of tertiary education decisions by students increasing returns on education providers' admission activities.

Primacy Effect of Dynamic Multi-Sensory Covid ADV Influences Cognitive and Emotional EEG Responses

Advertising uses sounds and dynamic images to provide visual, auditory, and tactile experiences, and to make the audience feel like the protagonist. During COVID-19, companies modified their communication by including pandemic references, but without penalizing multisensorial advertising. This study investigated how dynamic and emotional COVID-19-related advertising affects consumer cognitive and emotional responses. Nineteen participants, divided into two groups, watched three COVID-19-related and three non-COVID-19-related advertisements in two different orders (Order 1: COVID-19 and non-COVID-19; Order 2: non-COVID-19 and COVID-19), while electrophysiological data were collected. EEG showed theta activation in frontal and temporo-central areas when comparing Order 2 to Order 1, interpreted as cognitive control over salient emotional stimuli. An increase in alpha activity in parieto-occipital area was found in Order 2 compared to Order 1, suggesting an index of cognitive engagement. Higher beta activity in frontal area was observed for COVID-19 stimuli in Order 1 compared to Order 2, which can be defined as an indicator of high cognitive impact. Order 1 showed a greater beta activation in parieto-occipital area for non-COVID-19 stimuli compared to Order 2, as an index of reaction for painful images. This work suggests that order of exposure, more than advertising content, affects electrophysiological consumer responses, leading to a primacy effect.

The Impact of Communication Information on the Perceived Threat of COVID-19 and Stockpiling Intention

This article investigates the role of diverse nudging communication strategies on perceived threat and stockpiling intention. Across three studies, the authors examined the various effects of “nudging” on consumer behavior. Study 1 demonstrates that a commonly used picture has a stronger impact on perceived threat than a less frequently exposed picture regardless of its accuracy. Study 2 shows that the perceived threat of COVID-19, in terms of severe health consequences, is lower when using an indirect (vs. direct) explanation of the virus, as well as when reducing the amount of information about the virus. Study 3 investigates the impact of salient negative information and childhood socioeconomic status (SES). Findings reveal that negative information about deaths associated with the virus increases the level of perceived threat and stockpiling intention, especially among people of low childhood SES.

Effect of restaurant consumers' anticipated emotions on perceived value and behavioral intention in the COVID-19 context

While hospitality scholars have been conducting research on post-pandemic consumption recovery, the impact of the psychological consequences of COVID-19 on consumers' post-pandemic behavior remains insufficiently addressed. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the relationships among anticipated emotions, perceived value, perceived threat, and dining-out intention in the COVID-19 context. In this study, 621 restaurant consumers in China were surveyed and the data were analyzed with structural equation modeling. The results suggested that positive anticipated emotions affect perceived hedonic, utilitarian, and social values, whereas negative anticipated emotions affect hedonic value. Hedonic and utilitarian values then influence dining-out intention. Perceived threat in terms of perceived severity and susceptibility to COVID-19 was explored to moderate the impacts of hedonic and social values on the intention. This study contributes to the literature by identifying the positive, distinct roles of both anticipated emotions on consumer dining-out intention through perceived values and threats during the early recovery of COVID-19.

How perceived utilitarian and hedonic value influence online impulse shopping in India? Moderating role of perceived trust and perceived risk

Purpose

The study aims to explore the impact of perceived utilitarian and hedonic value (PHV) on shopper attitude and impulsive online purchasing using the technology acceptance model’s moderating role of perceived trust and risk.

Design/methodology/approach

Convenience sampling was used to collect primary data from 408 Indian online shoppers, and structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data.

Findings

The results indicated that cognitive absorption improved perceived usefulness (PU) and ease of use. Similarly, perceived ease of use influenced PU and PHV significantly. PU influenced utilitarian value positively. Perceived hedonic and utilitarian values significantly influenced attitude, and shoppers’ online buying attitudes strongly impacted impulsive online shopping. Finally, the trust had shown to substantially moderate shoppers’ attitudes toward impulsive online buying, whereas perceived risk had no such effect.

Practical implications

This research reveals a high degree of hedonic and utilitarian values, as well as low-risk features that might improve consumer attitudes about online impulsive behavior.

Originality/value

This research will aid e-retailers in building new strategies and plans to increase sales volume and strengthen relationships with online customers via the provision of trust and security throughout the purchase process.

Impulsive and Compulsive Buying Tendencies and Consumer Resistance to Digital Innovations: The Moderating Role of Perceived Threat of COVID-19

Based on the theory of reasoned action and innovation resistance theory, this study aims to explore the tendencies of consumer resistance to digital innovation and the moderating role of a perceived threat of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Data were collected using a cross-sectional online survey of 1,000 consumers of fast-moving consumer goods (FMCGs) in Pakistan. The results revealed several significant relationships between tendencies (impulsive and compulsive) of consumer resistance to digital innovation and the perceived threat of COVID-19. This study brings several key insights for consumers of FMCG products from Pakistan, and many theoretical and practical implications and future research directions are suggested.

Mortality Salience Effects of Critical Incidents - A Systematic Literature Review and Research Agenda

Critical incidents (CI) trigger acute stress reactions and psychological trauma because of direct or vicarious exposure. These events include natural disasters, wars, terrorist attacks and pandemics, and usually result in deaths and serious physical injuries. Their life-threatening nature makes them reasonable candidates to induce mortality salience (MS). The current review aims to consolidate Terror Management Theory (TMT) research using CIs as MS. A systematic literature review was conducted. Overall, 74 articles with 113 studies were included. Through this review, strong support for MS effects of CI has been found. Consistent with TMT, CIs tend to trigger worldview defence, self-esteem enhancement and relationship seeking. CIs have also been found to impact negatively on individual well-being and organisational health. Recommendations specific to crisis interventions and well-being will be discussed. The review concludes with potential future research directions to strengthen and expand empirical knowledge in CI salience.

Credit Card Use, Hedonic Motivations, and Impulse Buying Behavior in Fast Fashion Physical Stores during COVID-19: The Sustainability Paradox

The health crisis caused by COVID-19 has affected consumption and payment patterns worldwide. Consumers have had to change their habits and deal with new sanitation guidelines and have often struggled with lengthy infrastructure closures. These factors significantly influenced both the choice of payment methods and purchase decisions made by consumers. Still, consumption patterns during the pandemic as a new social situation have not yet been thoroughly investigated. As the unsustainable consumption of resources is an important issue, this paper aims to analyze the relationship between credit card use, hedonic motivations, and its impact on the impulsive buying behavior in physical fast fashion stores during the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain. For this purpose, an online survey was conducted on a sample of 300 regular fast fashion buyers in physical stores. Structural equation modelling was used for the data analysis. The results show that there is a significant relationship between credit card use and impulse buying behavior for fast fashion in physical stores, as well as between credit card use and social shopping. It is also observed that hedonic motivations such as gratification shopping, value shopping, novelty-seeking shopping, and adventure-seeking shopping are related to impulse buying behavior. Therefore, this evidences the unsustainable overconsumption, thereby having a higher negative environmental and social impact. With the increased popularity of cashless payment methods, including credit cards relaxing tighter budgets during the pandemic, fast fashion impulse buying should be considered an important issue in individual, social and environmental well-being. Consequently, the need for more responsible consumption and sustainability-focused value orientation arises so as to mitigate the environmental impact of the fast fashion industry.

Consumers in the Face of COVID-19-Related Advertising: Threat or Boost Effect?

The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted the production of a vast amount of COVID-19-themed brand commercials, in an attempt to exploit the salience of the topic to reach more effectively the consumers. However, the literature has produced conflicting findings of the effectiveness of negative emotional contents in advertisings. The present study aims at exploring the effect of COVID-19-related contents on the hemodynamic brain correlates of the consumer approach or avoidance motivation. Twenty Italian participants were randomly assigned to two different groups that watched COVID-19-related or non-COVID-19-related commercials. The hemodynamic response [oxygenated (O₂Hb) and deoxygenated hemoglobin modulations] within the left and right prefrontal cortices (PFC) was monitored with Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) while brand commercials were presented, as the prefrontal lateralization was shown to be indicative of the attitude toward the brand and of the approach-avoidance motivation. First, the findings showed that the COVID-19-related contents were able to prompt emotional processing within the PFC to a higher extent compared to contents non-related to COVID-19. Moreover, the single-channel analysis revealed increased O₂Hb activity of the left dorsolateral PFC compared to the left pars triangularis Broca’s area in the group of participants that watched the COVID-19-related commercials, suggesting that the commercials may have driven participants to dedicate more attention toward the processing of the emotional components compared to the semantic meaning conveyed by the ad. To conclude, despite expressing unpleasant emotions, commercials referring to the highly emotional pandemic experience may benefit the advertising efficacy, increasing the capability to reach customers.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on job satisfaction: A mediated moderation model using job stress and organizational resilience in the hotel industry of Taiwan

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected businesses worldwide, including the hotel industry in Taiwan. This study aims to explore the influence of the perceived threat of COVID-19 on job satisfaction. SPSS software was used for data analysis, and the PROCESS macro was used to test the mediation, moderation, and moderated mediation hypotheses. An online survey (n = 681) was conducted on hotels in Taiwan in 2021, and the results indicate that job stress activation has a mediating effect on employees' job satisfaction and the hotels' business performances. Moreover, organizational resilience has a moderating effect on job stress. This study contributes theoretically to a better understanding of the factors that determine the impact of traumatic events such as a pandemic on people's mental health. This study suggests that interventions may be carried out to minimize the pandemic's negative psychological consequences. The implications of this study are also applicable to hoteliers in other affected countries.

Green factors stimulating the purchase intention of innovative luxury organic beauty products: Implications for sustainable development

Orienting consumers toward organic eco-friendly beauty products is a societal challenge that resonates with growing environmental concerns following COP 21, when entrepreneurs in the cosmetic industry initiated ambitious plans to increase the proportion of natural components in their products. This study examines how green factors impact customers' intention to purchase premium organic beauty products. We explore the mediating roles of trust and attitude on this purchase intention, using the SOR paradigm and the dual factor theory, an original approach. Data was collected from 398 respondents using convenience sampling and analysed using the IBM SPSS 22 version and AMOS 22 version package applying structural equation modelling. We show that the mediating role of trust and attitude is of the utmost importance to ensure a sustainable orientation of customers toward organic products. The findings suggest (a) green ads, green brand image and perceived consumer effectiveness positively influence consumers' attitude toward luxury organic beauty products; (b) LOHAS consumption tendency does not impact consumers' attitudes; (c) trust has a significantly negative impact on the consumer's attitude; and (d) likewise, consumers' attitude mediate the intention to purchase luxury organic beauty products. The research has significant implications for understanding India's premium organic beauty goods market and for companies to develop new strategies to market their organic cosmetics. The study also encourages policymakers to provide necessary subsidies to new organic beauty entrepreneurs.

The impact of COVID-19 on consumer evaluation of authentic advertising messages

This study investigates the relationship between the COVID-19 threat and consumer evaluation of a product with authenticity appeals in advertisements. We propose that threatening situations like COVID-19 motivate consumers to lower their uncertainty and increase their preference for products with authentic advertising messages. Because individuals react differently to threatening environments according to their early-life experiences, commonly reflected in childhood socioeconomic status, we examined whether childhood socioeconomic status moderates the relationship between threat and consumer evaluation of authenticity in advertisements. First, secondary data from Google Trends provided empirical support for our predictions. In additional experimental studies, participants evaluated different target products in four studies that either manipulated (Studies 2 and 3) or measured (Studies 4 and 5) COVID-19 threat. Our results provide converging evidence that consumers positively evaluate products with authentic advertising messages under the COVID-19 threat. Consumers' motivation to lower their uncertainty underlies the effect of COVID-19 threat on their evaluation of authentic messages (Study 3). This attempt to reduce uncertainty is more likely to occur for consumers with relatively higher childhood socioeconomic status (Studies 4 and 5). These findings suggest that using authenticity appeals during a pandemic could effectively reduce consumers' perceived uncertainty and generate positive consumer evaluations.

Money or love? The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on consumer life goals and subjective well-being

The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly changed how consumers live. This research investigated the impact of the pandemic on two important life goals-material versus relational goals-as well as their subsequent consequences on consumer subjective well-being (SWB). We conducted a three-wave longitudinal study and recruited 1567 participants from mainland China during the pandemic. Cross-lagged model results showed that consumers' perceived threat of the pandemic was positively related to the importance placed on material and relational goals, which conduced to divergent effects on consumer SWB. Specifically, the greater the threat consumers perceived in the pandemic, the more emphasis they placed on material success and social relationships. However, pursuing material goals had a negative impact on SWB, but relational goals had a favorable influence on SWB. Our findings enhance understanding of how consumers' life goals changed during the COVID-19 pandemic and offer insights for marketing in the current and future pandemics.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on travelers' preference for crowded versus non-crowded options

Crowding is a critical determinant of consumers' satisfaction with and preferences for different shopping and travel situations. When considering a selection of travel and hospitality options, travelers are influenced by perceived crowding. This research examined how the current health crisis (i.e., the COVID-19 pandemic) affects travelers' preferences for crowded and non-crowded options. Specifically, we predicted that travelers would have a diminished preference for crowded (vs. non-crowded) travel and hospitality options when the ongoing pandemic is salient. We demonstrated that the primary effect of the salience of the threat was persistent across different travel categories and contexts. We also found that travelers with high levels of sensation seeking and a high need for uniqueness show the opposite pattern, suggesting a possible recovery strategy from the pandemic. Five experimental studies provide several theoretical and managerial implications for travel and hospitality business marketers.

Impacts of Covid-19 pandemic on consumer behavior in Turkey: A qualitative study

The current study aims to examine consumer behavior in Turkey during the COVID-19 pandemic and how consumers adapt to this new normal. In this regard, 78 Turkish consumers were interviewed online. Data were analyzed through grounded theory with a stimulus-organism-response framework and constant comparative methods. This study showed that environmental stimuli affecting consumer behavior during the pandemic are economic downturn, partial lockdown regulations, restrictions on some services, and social media messages. Organism consists of fear, boredom, and perceived risk. Consumers' behavioral responses to the pandemic are changes in purchasing of consumer goods, avoidance from physical stores, a decline in leisure activities, a decline in shopping frequency, planned vs. impulse buying, stockpiling, and prosumption. Overall, this study provides a more general framework regarding multiple aspects of the pandemic on consumer behavior.

What Type of Consumption Induces or Alleviates Consumer Psychological Distress? Evidence From the COVID-19 Pandemic in China

Even though the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has limited consumption, individuals continue to plan post-pandemic consumption activities to get rid of the stress caused by consumption repression. Building on Maslow's theory of needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory, our research categorizes consumption into fundamental ("must-have" products that fulfill the physical needs of individuals), hygiene (maintaining the security needs of consumers), and motivational consumption (enhancing well-being of individuals). Based on empirical data of purchase behavior and consumption expectation before, during, and after the pandemic in China, we identify how consumption repression induces psychological distress, via a sense of feeling threatened, lacking control, or lacking freedom, and how the expectation of future consumption alleviates that stress. Results show that fundamental consumption leads to psychological distress; hygiene consumption can both result in and reduce stress; and motivational consumption can reduce stress. Our findings provide new insights into the relationship between consumption and psychological distress through new theoretical formulations. The results can be applied by marketers attempting to understand purchase decision-making and by policymakers supporting both citizens and commerce during social emergencies.

Catharsis Through Cinema: An Italian Qualitative Study on Watching Tragedies to Mitigate the Fear of COVID-19

Background: Among different ways of coping with the unsettling situation of the COVID-19 pandemic, a very peculiar one has been identified: a more frequent request, by the general population, of movies or TV series related to the very theme of viruses, contagions, and epidemics. Objectives: The aim of the present study was to explore this peculiar phenomenon, in order to identify people's emotions and cognitions during and after the process, and to better understand the possible psychological function cinema can have during moments of intense and generalized crisis like the present COVID-19 pandemic. Participants: Fifteen Italian adults took part in the study - eight women and seven men (average age = 30 years, SD = 10.54). Participants were recruited through social media via a specific announcement, and subsequently, through a "snowball sampling." Method: For the present study a qualitative approach was adopted, and more specifically, the principles of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) have been followed. Semi-structured interviews were conducted by telephone or through online meeting platforms (Zoom or Skype). The written texts obtained from the transcription of each interview were analyzed using thematic analysis with the support of the software Atlas.ti, in order to highlight their fundamental contents. Results: From the data analysis, four main areas of thematic prevalence emerged, which reflected the participants' condition during the pandemic that actually led them to watch epidemic-themed movies or TV series: the need to document themselves concerning the theme of epidemics, the need to exorcize contagion anxiety, the desire to find a character with which they could identify, and the casual condition of finding a peculiar movie related to the theme of pandemics and being interested in it because of the striking resemblance with real life. Conclusions: The findings suggest that cinema could indeed represent a powerful tool to help people face the intense uncertainty of the new COVID-19 epidemic, since it allows spectators to both obtain more insight into the current situation, and to project their fears and uncertainties into the movie or TV series, thus reaching a sort of cathartic liberation that offers them hope toward the future.

How perceived threat of COVID-19 related to aggressive tendencies during the pandemic in Hubei Province and other regions of China: Mediators and moderators

During the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, domestic violence, interpersonal conflicts, and cyberbullying have risen sharply in China. We speculate that the perceived threat of COVID-19 is related to a general, non-target-specific aggressive tendency during the pandemic. We surveyed 1556 Chinese people in April 2020 (757 people in Hubei Province, the pandemic epicenter in China, and 799 in other regions of China where the pandemic is relatively not severe). A multiple-group structural equation modeling analysis found significant total effects between perceived threat of COVID-19 and aggressive tendencies during the pandemic in both regional groups, and the effect between them was mainly achieved through the mediating roles of sense of control and powerlessness during the pandemic. For all participants, negative coping strategies significantly aggravated the association between perceived threat of COVID-19 and aggressive tendencies during the pandemic, but the buffers were different across regions of outbreak severity. For participants in other regions where the pandemic is relatively not severe, positive coping strategies could mitigate the association between perceived threat of COVID-19 and aggressions. However, for participants in Hubei Province, the epicenter of China's pandemic, higher life satisfaction was more effective in buffering. These findings extend the possible consequences of the perceived COVID-19 threat and suggest that improving the life satisfaction of residents in areas with severe outbreaks is more effective in mitigating the adverse effects of COVID-19.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-021-01792-7.

Intolerance of uncertainty and reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has presented a threat to mental health worldwide. The current study aims to investigate the role of intolerance of uncertainty in cognitive, emotional and behavioral reactions to this pandemic and propose a path model of these reactions. In the first two months of the COVID-19 pandemic in Slovakia, participants in a general sample (n = 1,011) as well as an older adult sample (n = 655) completed measures regarding intolerance of uncertainty, mental health (anxiety, well-being, perceived stress) and adherence to preventive measures. Two rounds of data collection were carried out in the first sample. Intolerance of uncertainty was found to be related to mental health indicators and the structural equation model showed a direct and indirect effect on them as well as on the adherence to preventive measures. However, the comparison of data from different time points has brought inconsistent results. The findings highlight the role of intolerance of uncertainty in reaction to threat and indicate the potential of uncertainty reduction e.g., getting clear messages from authorities, as a way of decreasing mental health problems.

Changes in Consumption Patterns and Tourist Promotion after the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has entailed an unprecedented health crisis with significant economic impacts in many sectors worldwide. The tourism sector has been one of the most affected, with significant impacts on the number of cancelled reservations, a decrease in international travel and changes in consumption behaviour. This study aims to analyse the main changes in promotion and marketing in the tourism sector in Spain after the pandemic. To this end, a qualitative analysis was carried out via questionnaire-based interviews with 65 experts in the areas of marketing, consumer behaviour and tourism. The main findings show that online information sources gained weight over consulting friends and relatives, and a great advance in digitization is expected, where physical travel agencies will be displaced by online platforms, except for specialized and advisory services. Additionally, technologies such as virtual reality (VR) or artificial intelligence (AI) may play an increasingly important role in the medium term.

The moderating role of childhood socioeconomic status on the impact of nudging on the perceived threat of coronavirus and stockpiling intention

Communications that include nudges and framing strategies are ubiquitous in our daily lives. In this paper, we investigate how different nudging strategies during a public health campaign, particularly supplementary information and statistics, influence perceptions of threat and stockpiling intentions, while also considering the role of childhood socioeconomic status. Specifically, building upon prior work in behavioral economics, we hypothesize that the presence of additional statistics elicits lower perceived threat and intention to stockpile. In addition, we predict find that the childhood socioeconomic status of individuals influences these effects. Three studies offer evidence for those predictions and demonstrate the importance of message framing in uncertain circumstances. Overall, this work contributes to the literature on nudging and life history theory by investigating how communication strategies can be used to increase or decrease perceived threat in order to achieve desired outcomes (e.g., limiting stockpiling or respecting social distancing).

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The information presented and the design of health campaigns significantly influence perceived threats and irrational behaviors such as stockpiling intentions.

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Childhood socioeconomic status of individuals has an impact on the effectiveness of these advertising strategies.

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Health campaign design about COVID-19 and childhood SES influence perceived threat and stockpiling intentions.

Preference for robot service or human service in hotels? Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic

Robots and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies are becoming more prominent in the tourism industry. Nowadays, consumers are faced with multiple options involving both human and robot interactions. A series of experimental studies were implemented. Four experiments demonstrated that consumers had a more positive attitude toward robot-staffed (vs. human-staffed) hotels when COVID-19 was salient. The results were different from previous studies, which were conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic. Since the moderating role of perceived threat in consumers' preference for robot-staffed hotels was significant, the respondents' preference was attributed to the global health crisis. This research provides a number of theoretical and managerial implications by improving the understanding of technology acceptance during a health crisis.

Effects of COVID-19 on preferences for private dining facilities in restaurants

The present research investigates the effects of the perceived threat of COVID-19 and the salience of the virus on consumers' preference for private dining facilities. Integrating the theories about the psychology of risk with research on preference for private dining, we predict that the prominence of the virus systematically increases preference for private dining facilities. Four studies (N = 812) consistently support our prediction. Consumers who perceive the threat of the COVID-19 pandemic to be high (vs. low) evaluate the private dining restaurant (Study 1) and the private dining table (Study 2) highly. Moreover, two experiments showed that the salience of the virus generates a preference for the private (vs. non-private) dining table (Study 3) and for the restaurant with private rooms (Study 4). This research provides a strategy for the restaurant industry to recover from the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Perceived Severity of COVID-19 and Post-pandemic Consumption Willingness: The Roles of Boredom and Sensation-Seeking

The COVID-19 pandemic restricts people's activities and makes consumer businesses suffered. This study explored the relationship between the perceived severity of COVID-19 and the post-pandemic consumption willingness. Study 1 surveyed 1464 Chinese people in March 2020, found the perceived severity of COVID-19 during the pandemic significantly increased the willingness to consume post-pandemic, and boredom stemming from limited activities and sensation-seeking expressions mediated this effect. Study 2 conducted an experiment with 174 participants in August 2020, found a high level of perceived severity of COVID-19 and the experience of life tedium during the pandemic significantly increased individuals' impulsive buying tendencies after the pandemic. The results suggested the level of perceived severity of COVID-19 may influence people's post-pandemic consumption patterns.