Modeling electron transfer in photosystem I

Structural Characterization of the Platinum Nanoparticle Hydrogen-Evolving Catalyst Assembled on Photosystem I by Light-Driven Chemistry

Directed assembly of abiotic catalysts onto biological redox protein frameworks is of interest as an approach for the synthesis of biohybrid catalysts that combine features of both synthetic and biological materials. In this report, we provide a multiscale characterization of the platinum nanoparticle (NP) hydrogen-evolving catalysts that are assembled by light-driven reductive precipitation of platinum from an aqueous salt solution onto the photosystem I protein (PSI), isolated from cyanobacteria as trimeric PSI. The resulting PSI-NP assemblies were analyzed using a combination of X-ray energy-dispersive spectroscopy (XEDS), high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and high-energy X-ray scattering with atomic pair distribution function (PDF) analyses. The results show that the PSI-supported NPs are approximately 1.8 nm diameter disk-shaped particles that assemble at discrete sites with 145 Å separation. This separation is too large to be consistent with NP nucleation and growth at a site adjacent to the FB cofactor site. Instead, we suggest a mechanism for NP growth at hydrophobic sites on the PSI stromal surface. The NPs photoreductively assembled on the PSI stromal surface are found to be analogous to the nanostructures produced by successive cycles of atomic layer deposition (ALD) of platinum onto 40 nm porous anodic alumina oxide supports, although the mechanisms for nucleation appear to differ. This work establishes a foundation for the investigation of the reductive assembly of abiotic metal catalysts at sites connected to photochemically reducing equivalent production in PSI.

Thermodynamic Factors Controlling Electron Transfer among the Terminal Electron Acceptors of Photosystem I: Insights from Kinetic Modelling

Photosystem I is a key component of primary energy conversion in oxygenic photosynthesis. Electron transfer reactions in Photosystem I take place across two parallel electron transfer chains that converge after a few electron transfer steps, sharing both the terminal electron acceptors, which are a series of three iron-sulphur (Fe-S) clusters known as FX, FA, and FB, and the terminal donor, P700. The two electron transfer chains show kinetic differences which are, due to their close geometrical symmetry, mainly attributable to the tuning of the physicochemical reactivity of the bound cofactors, exerted by the protein surroundings. The factors controlling the rate of electron transfer between the terminal Fe-S clusters are still not fully understood due to the difficulties of monitoring these events directly. Here we present a discussion concerning the driving forces associated with electron transfer between FX and FA as well as between FA and FB, employing a tunnelling-based description of the reaction rates coupled with the kinetic modelling of forward and recombination reactions. It is concluded that the reorganisation energy for FX- oxidation shall be lower than 1 eV. Moreover, it is suggested that the analysis of mutants with altered FA redox properties can also provide useful information concerning the upstream phylloquinone cofactor energetics.

Inverted region in the reaction of the quinone reduction in the A1-site of photosystem I from cyanobacteria

Photosystem I from the menB strain of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 containing foreign quinones in the A1 sites was used for studying the primary steps of electron transfer by pump-probe femtosecond laser spectroscopy. The free energy gap (- ΔG) of electron transfer between the reduced primary acceptor A0 and the quinones bound in the A1 site varied from 0.12 eV for the low-potential 1,2-diamino-anthraquinone to 0.88 eV for the high-potential 2,3-dichloro-1,4-naphthoquinone, compared to 0.5 eV for the native phylloquinone. It was shown that the kinetics of charge separation between the special pair chlorophyll P700 and the primary acceptor A0 was not affected by quinone substitutions, whereas the rate of A0 → A1 electron transfer was sensitive to the redox-potential of quinones: the decrease of - ΔG by 400 meV compared to the native phylloquinone resulted in a ~ fivefold slowing of the reaction The presence of the asymmetric inverted region in the ΔG dependence of the reaction rate indicates that the electron transfer in photosystem I is controlled by nuclear tunneling and should be treated in terms of quantum electron-phonon interactions. A three-mode implementation of the multiphonon model, which includes modes around 240 cm-1 (large-scale protein vibrations), 930 cm-1 (out-of-plane bending of macrocycles and protein backbone vibrations), and 1600 cm-1 (double bonds vibrations) was applied to rationalize the observed dependence. The modes with a frequency of at least 1600 cm-1 make the predominant contribution to the reorganization energy, while the contribution of the "classical" low-frequency modes is only 4%.

Nanosecond time-resolved infrared spectroscopy for the study of electron transfer in photosystem I

Microsecond time-resolved step-scan FTIR difference spectroscopy was used to study photosystem I (PSI) from Thermosynechococcus vestitus BP-1 (T. vestitus, formerly known as T. elongatus) at 77 K. In addition, photoaccumulated (P700+-P700) FTIR difference spectra were obtained at both 77 and 293 K. The FTIR difference spectra are presented here for the first time. To extend upon these FTIR studies nanosecond time-resolved infrared difference spectroscopy was also used to study PSI from T. vestitus at 296 K. Nanosecond infrared spectroscopy has never been used to study PSI samples at physiological temperatures, and here it is shown that such an approach has great value as it allows a direct probe of electron transfer down both branches in PSI. In PSI at 296 K, the infrared flash-induced absorption changes indicate electron transfer down the B- and A-branches is characterized by time constants of 33 and 364 ns, respectively, in good agreement with visible spectroscopy studies. These time constants are associated with forward electron transfer from A1- to FX on the B- and A-branches, respectively. At several infrared wavelengths flash-induced absorption changes at 296 K recover in tens to hundreds of milliseconds. The dominant decay phase is characterized by a lifetime of 128 ms. These millisecond changes are assigned to radical pair recombination reactions, with the changes being associated primarily with P700+ rereduction. This conclusion follows from the observation that the millisecond infrared spectrum is very similar to the photoaccumulated (P700+-P700) FTIR difference spectrum.

Time-resolved FTIR difference spectroscopy for the study of photosystem I with high potential naphthoquinones incorporated into the A1 binding site 2: Identification of neutral state quinone bands

Time-resolved step-scan FTIR difference spectroscopy at 77 K has been used to study photosystem I (PSI) from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 with four high-potential, 1,4-naphthoquinones (NQs) incorporated into the A1 binding site. The incorporated quinones are 2-chloro-NQ (2ClNQ), 2-bromo-NQ (2BrNQ), 2,3-dichloro-NQ (Cl2NQ), and 2,3-dibromo-NQ (Br2NQ). For completeness 2-methyl-NQ (2MNQ) was also incorporated and studied. Previously, PSI with the same quinones incorporated were studied in the, so-called, anion spectral region between 1550 and 1400 cm-1 (Agarwala et al. in Biochim Biophys Acta 1864(1):148918, 2023). Here we focus on spectra in the previously unexplored 1400-1200 cm-1 spectral region. In this region several bands are identified and assigned to the neutral state of the incorporated quinones. This is important as identification of neutral state quinone bands in the regular 1700-1600 cm-1 region has proven difficult in the past. For neutral PhQ in PSI a broad, intense band appears at ~ 1300 cm-1. For the symmetric di-substituted NQs (Cl2NQ/Br2NQ) a single intense neutral state band is found at ~ 1280/1269 cm-1, respectively. For both mono-substituted NQs, 2ClNQ and 2BrNQ, however, two neutral state bands are observed at ~ 1280 and ~ 1250 cm-1, respectively. These observations from time-resolved spectra agree well with conclusions drawn from absorption spectra of the NQs in THF, which are also presented here. Density functional theory based vibrational frequency calculations were undertaken allowing an identification of the normal modes associated with the neutral state quinone bands.

Time-resolved FTIR difference spectroscopy for the study of photosystem I with high potential naphthoquinones incorporated into the A1 binding site

Time-resolved step-scan Fourier transform infrared difference spectroscopy has been used to study cyanobacterial photosystem I photosynthetic reaction centers from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 (S6803) with four high-potential, 1,4-naphthoquinones incorporated into the A₁ binding site. The high-potential naphthoquinones are 2-chloro-, 2-bromo-, 2,3-dichloro- and 2,3-dibromo-1,4-naphthoquinone. "Foreign minus native" double difference spectra (DDS) were constructed by subtracting difference spectra for native photosystem I (with phylloquinone in the A₁ binding site) from corresponding spectra obtained using photosystem I with the different quinones incorporated. To help assess and assign bands in the difference and double difference spectra, density functional theory based vibrational frequency calculations for the different quinones in solvent, or in the presence of a single asymmetric H- bond to either a water molecule or a peptide backbone NH group, were undertaken. Calculated and experimental spectra agree best for the peptide backbone asymmetrically H- bonded system. By comparing multiple sets of double difference spectra, several new bands for the native quinone (phylloquinone) are identified. By comparing calculated and experimental spectra we conclude that the mono-substituted halogenated NQs can occupy the binding site in either of two different orientations, with the chlorine or bromine atom being either ortho or meta to the H- bonded CO group.

Catalysis by Nature's photoenzymes

Photoenzymes use light to initiate biochemical reactions. Although rarely found in nature, their study has advanced understanding of how light energy can be harnessed to facilitate enzyme catalysis, which is also of importance to the design and engineering of man-made photocatalysts. Natural photoenzymes can be assigned to one of two families, based broadly on the nature of the light-sensing chromophores used, those being chlorophyll-like tetrapyrroles or flavins. In all cases, light absorption leads to excited state electron transfer, which in turn initiates photocatalysis. Reviewed here are recent findings relating to the structures and mechanisms of known photoenzymes. We highlight recent advances that have deepened understanding of mechanisms in biological photocatalysis.

Energetics of the Electron Transfer Pathways in the Homodimeric Photosynthetic Reaction Center

Photosynthetic reaction centers from a green sulfur bacterium (GsbRC), the PscA/PscA proteins, and photosystem I (PSI), PsaA/PsaB proteins, share structural similarities. Here, we report the redox potential (Em) values of GsbRC by solving the linear Poisson-Boltzmann equation and considering the protonation states of all titratable sites in the entire GsbRC protein and identify the factors that shift the Em values with respect to PSI. The Em values for one-electron reduction of the accessory (A-1) and adjacent (A0) chlorophylls in GsbRC are 100-250 mV higher than those in PSI, whereas the Em values for the Fe4S4 cluster (FX) are at the same level. The PsaA-Trp697/PsaB-Trp677 pair in PSI, which forms the A1-quinone binding site, is replaced with PscA-Arg638 in GsbRC. PsaB-Asp575 in PSI, which is responsible for the Em difference between A1A and A1B quinones in PSI, is absent in GsbRC. These discrepancies also contribute to the upshift in Em(A-1) and Em(A0) in GsbRC with respect to PSI. It seems likely that the upshifted Em for chlorophylls in GsbRC ultimately originates from the characteristics of the electrostatic environment that corresponds to the A1 site of PSI.

Experimental and calculated infrared spectra of disubstituted naphthoquinones

In recent years there has been interest in incorporating substituted 1,4-naphthoquinones (NQs) into the A₁ binding site in photosystem I (PSI) photosynthetic protein complexes. This interest in part stems from the considerably altered bioenergetics of electron transfer that occur in PSI with such substitutions. Time resolved FTIR studies of PSI complexes with disubstituted NQs incorporated have and currently are being undertaken, and with this in mind it is worth considering FTIR absorption spectra of these disubstituted NQs in solution. Here we present FTIR absorbance spectra for 2-bromo-3-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (BrMeNQ), 2-chloromethyl-3-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (CMMeNQ) and 2-ethylthio-3-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (ETMeNQ) in tetrahydrofuran (THF). The FTIR spectra of these di-substituted naphthoquinones (NQs) were compared to FTIR spectra of 2-methyl-3-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone [phylloquinone (PhQ)], 2,3-dimethyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (DMNQ), and 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (2MNQ). To aid in the assignment of bands in the experimental spectra, density functional theory (DFT) based vibrational frequency calculations for all the substituted NQs in solution were undertaken. The calculated and experimental spectra agree well. By calculating normal mode potential energy distributions, unambiguous quantitative band assignments were made. The calculated and experimental spectra together make predictions about what may be observable in time resolved FTIR difference spectra obtained using PSI with the different NQs incorporated. Time resolved FTIR difference spectra are presented that support these predictions.

Room temperature XFEL crystallography reveals asymmetry in the vicinity of the two phylloquinones in photosystem I

Photosystem I (PS I) has a symmetric structure with two highly similar branches of pigments at the center that are involved in electron transfer, but shows very different efficiency along the two branches. We have determined the structure of cyanobacterial PS I at room temperature (RT) using femtosecond X-ray pulses from an X-ray free electron laser (XFEL) that shows a clear expansion of the entire protein complex in the direction of the membrane plane, when compared to previous cryogenic structures. This trend was observed by complementary datasets taken at multiple XFEL beamlines. In the RT structure of PS I, we also observe conformational differences between the two branches in the reaction center around the secondary electron acceptors A_1A and A_1B. The π-stacked Phe residues are rotated with a more parallel orientation in the A-branch and an almost perpendicular confirmation in the B-branch, and the symmetry breaking PsaB-Trp673 is tilted and further away from A_1A. These changes increase the asymmetry between the branches and may provide insights into the preferential directionality of electron transfer.

Closing the Gap for Electronic Short-Circuiting: Photosystem I Mixed Monolayers Enable Improved Anisotropic Electron Flow in Biophotovoltaic Devices

Well-defined assemblies of photosynthetic protein complexes are required for an optimal performance of semi-artificial energy conversion devices, capable of providing unidirectional electron flow when light-harvesting proteins are interfaced with electrode surfaces. We present mixed photosystem I (PSI) monolayers constituted of native cyanobacterial PSI trimers in combination with isolated PSI monomers from the same organism. The resulting compact arrangement ensures a high density of photoactive protein complexes per unit area, providing the basis to effectively minimize short-circuiting processes that typically limit the performance of PSI-based bioelectrodes. The PSI film is further interfaced with redox polymers for optimal electron transfer, enabling highly efficient light-induced photocurrent generation. Coupling of the photocathode with a [NiFeSe]-hydrogenase confirms the possibility to realize light-induced H2 evolution.

Assessment of the orientation and conformation of pigments in protein binding sites from infrared difference spectra

Time resolved FTIR difference spectroscopy (DS) has been used to study photosystem I (PSI) with the disubstituted 1,4-naphthoquinones acequinocyl (AcQ) and lapachol (Lpc) incorporated into the A₁ binding site. AcQ is a 2-acetoxy-3-dodecyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, Lpc is a 2-hydroxy-3-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-1,4-naphthoquinone. To assess whether the experimental spectra are specific to different orientations of the quinone and their substitutions ONIOM-type QM/MM vibrational frequency calculations were undertaken for various orientations of the pigments and side-chain conformations in the A₁ binding site. Comparison of calculated and experimental spectra for the reduced species (semiquinone anion) suggests that the orientation for the naphthoquinone ring in the binding site and specific side-chain conformations can be identified based on the spectra. In native PSI phylloquinone (PhQ) in the A₁ binding site binds with its phytyl chain ortho to the hydrogen bonded carbonyl group. This is not found to be the case for the hydrocarbon tail of AcQ, which is meta to the H-bonded carbonyl group. In contrast, Lpc in PSI binds with its hydrocarbon tail also ortho to the H-bonded carbonyl group. Furthermore, comparison of calculated and experimental spectra indicates which conformations the acetoxy group of AcQ and the hydroxy group of Lpc adopt in the A₁ binding site.

Reversible inhibition and reactivation of electron transfer in photosystem I

In photosystem I (PSI) complexes at room temperature electron transfer from A₁^- to F_X is an order of magnitude faster on the B-branch compared to the A-branch. One factor that might contribute to this branch asymmetry in time constants is TrpB673 (Thermosynechococcus elongatus numbering), which is located between A_1B and F_X. The corresponding residue on the A-branch, between A_1A and F_X, is GlyA693. Here, microsecond time-resolved step-scan FTIR difference spectroscopy at 77 K has been used to study isolated PSI complexes from wild type and TrpB673Phe mutant (WB673F mutant) cells from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. WB673F mutant cells require glucose for growth and are light sensitive. Photoaccumulated FTIR difference spectra indicate changes in amide I and II protein vibrations upon mutation of TrpB673 to Phe, indicating the protein environment near F_X is altered upon mutation. In the WB673F mutant PSI samples, but not in WT PSI samples, the phylloquinone molecule that occupies the A₁ binding site is likely doubly protonated following long periods of repetitive flash illumination at room temperature. PSI with (doubly) protonated quinone in the A₁ binding site are not functional in electron transfer. However, electron transfer functionality can be restored by incubating the light-treated mutant PSI samples in the presence of added phylloquinone.

Time-resolved FTIR difference spectroscopy for the study of quinones in the A1 binding site in photosystem I: Identification of neutral state quinone bands

Infrared absorption bands associated with the neutral state of quinones in the A₁ binding site in photosystem I (PSI) have been difficult to identify in the past. This problem is addressed here, where time-resolved step-scan FTIR difference spectroscopy at 77 K has been used to study PSI with six different quinones incorporated into the A₁ binding site. (P700⁺A₁^- - P700A₁) and (A₁^- - A₁) FTIR difference spectra (DS) were obtained for PSI with the different quinones incorporated, and several double-difference spectra (DDS) were constructed from the DS. From analysis of the DS and DDS, in combination with density functional theory based vibrational frequency calculations of the quinones, the neutral state bands of the incorporated quinones are identified and assigned. For neutral PhQ in the A₁ binding site, infrared absorption bands were identified near 1665 and 1635 cm^-1, that are due to the C₁O and C₄O stretching vibrations of the incorporated PhQ, respectively. These assignments indicate a 30 cm^-1 separation between the C₁O and C₄O modes, considerably less than the ~80 cm^-1 found for similar modes of PhQ^-. The C₄O mode downshifts due to hydrogen bonding, so the suggestion is that hydrogen bonding is weaker for the neutral state compared to the anion state, indicating radical-induced proton dynamics associated with the quinone in the A₁ binding site in PSI.

Generating dihydrogen by tethering an [FeFe]hydrogenase via a molecular wire to the A1A/A1B sites of photosystem I

Photosystem I complexes from the menB deletion mutant of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 were previously wired to a Pt nanoparticle via a molecular wire consisting of 15-(3-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone-2-yl)]pentadecyl sulfide. In the presence of a sacrificial electron donor and an electron transport mediator, the PS I-NQ(CH₂)₁₅S-Pt nanoconstruct generated dihydrogen at a rate of 44.3 µmol of H₂ mg Chl^-1 h^-1 during illumination at pH 8.3. The menB deletion strain contains an interruption in the biosynthetic pathway of phylloquinone, which results in the presence of a displaceable plastoquinone-9 in the A_1A/A_1B sites. The synthesized quinone contains a headgroup identical to the native phylloquinone along with a 15-carbon long tail that is terminated in a thiol. The thiol on the molecular wire is used to bind the Pt nanoparticle. In this short communication, we replaced the Pt nanoparticle with an [FeFe]H₂ase variant from Clostridium acetobutylicum that contains an exposed iron on the distal [4Fe-4S] cluster afforded by mutating the surface exposed Cys97 residue to Gly. The thiol on the molecular wire is then used to coordinate the corner iron atom of the iron-sulfur cluster. When all three components are combined and illuminated in the presence of a sacrificial electron donor and an electron transport mediator, the PS I-NQ(CH₂)₁₅S-[FeFe]H₂ase nanoconstruct generated dihydrogen at a rate of 50.3 ± 9.96 μmol of H₂ mg Chl^-1 h^-1 during illumination at pH 8.3. This successful in vitro experiment sets the stage for assembling a PS I-NQ(CH₂)₁₅S-[FeFe]H₂ase nanoconstruct in vivo in the menB mutant of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803.

Kinetics and Energetics of Phylloquinone Reduction in Photosystem I: Insight From Modeling of the Site Directed Mutants

Two phylloquinone molecules (A ₁), one being predominantly coordinated by PsaA subunit residues (A _1A) the other by those of PsaB (A _1B), act as intermediates in the two parallel electron transfer chains of Photosystem I. The oxidation kinetics of the two phyllosemiquinones by the iron-sulfur cluster F_X differ by approximately one order of magnitude, with A 1 A - being oxidized in about 200 ns and A 1 B - in about 20 ns. These differences are generally explained in terms of asymmetries in the driving force for F_X reduction on the two electron transfer chains. Site directed mutations of conserved amino acids composing the A ₁ binding site have been engineered on both reaction center subunits, and proved to affect selectively the oxidation lifetime of either A 1 A - , for PsaA mutants, or A 1 B - , for PsaB mutants. The mutation effects are here critically reviewed, also by novel modeling simulations employing the tunneling formalism to estimate the electron transfer rates. Three main classes of mutation effects are in particular addressed: (i) those leading to an acceleration, (ii) those leading to a moderated slowing (~5-folds), and (iii) those leading to a severe slowing (>20-folds) of the kinetics. The effect of specific amino acid perturbations contributing to the poising of the phylloquinones redox potential and, in turn, to PSI functionality, is discussed.

Modelling electron transfer in photosystem I: limits and perspectives

Uncovering the parameters underlying the electron transfer (ET) in photosynthetic reaction centres is of importance for understanding the molecular mechanisms underpinning their functionality. The reductive nature of most cofactors involved in photosynthetic ET makes the direct estimation of their properties difficult. Photosystem I (PSI) operates in a highly reducing regime, making the assessment of cofactor properties even more difficult. Kinetic modelling coupled to a non-adiabatic description of ET is a useful approach in overcoming this hindrance. Here we review the theory and modelling approaches that have been used in assessing parameters associated with ET reactions in PSI, with particular attention to ET reactions involving the phylloquinones and the iron-sulphur clusters. In most modelling studies, the goal is to estimate the driving force of ET, which is usually associated with the cofactor midpoint potentials. The driving force is sensitive to many factors, which define the ET rate, i.e. the reorganisation energy, the coupling with nuclear modes and the electronic matrix elements, which are explored and discussed here. The importance of an inclusive modelling of both forward and reverse ET processes is discussed and highlighted. It is shown that although estimates are indeed sensitive to the exact parameter sets employed in the modelling, a general consensus is still attained, pointing to a scenario where Δ G A 1 A → F X 0 / Δ G A 1 B → F X 0 is weakly endergonic/exergonic, respectively. It is emphasised that to further refine those estimates, it will require a joint effort between computational modelling and more wide-ranging experimental studies.

Extended Operational Lifetime of a Photosystem-Based Bioelectrode

The development of bioelectrochemical assemblies for sustainable energy transformation constitutes an increasingly important field of research. Significant progress has been made in the development of semiartificial devices for conversion of light into electrical energy by integration of photosynthetic biomolecules on electrodes. However, sufficient long-term stability of such biophotoelectrodes has been compromised by reactive species generated under aerobic operation. Therefore, meeting the requirements of practical applications still remains unsolved. We present the operation of a photosystem I-based photocathode using an electron acceptor that enables photocurrent generation under anaerobic conditions as the basis for a biodevice with substantially improved stability. A continuous operation lifetime considerably superior to previous reports and at higher light intensities is paving the way toward the potential application of semiartificial energy conversion devices.

Jolly green MOF: confinement and photoactivation of photosystem I in a metal-organic framework

Photosystem I (PSI) is a ∼1000 kDa transmembrane protein that enables photoactivated charge separation with ∼1 V driving potential and ∼100% quantum efficiency during the photosynthetic process. Although such properties make PSI a potential candidate for integration into bio-hybrid solar energy harvesting devices, the grand challenge in orchestrating such integration rests on rationally designed 3D architectures that can organize and stabilize PSI in the myriad of harsh conditions in which it needs to function. The current study investigates the optical response and photoactive properties of PSI encapsulated in a highly stable nanoporous metal-organic framework (ZIF-8), denoted here as PSI@ZIF-8. The ZIF-8 framework provides a unique scaffold with a robust confining environment for PSI while protecting its precisely coordinated chlorophyll networks from denaturing agents. Significant blue shifts in the fluorescence emissions from UV-vis measurements reveal the successful confinement of PSI in ZIF-8. Pump-probe spectroscopy confirms the photoactivity of the PSI@ZIF-8 composites by revealing the successful internal charge separation and external charge transfer of P₇₀₀ ⁺ and F_B ^- even after exposure to denaturing agents and organic solvents. This work provides greater fundamental understanding of confinement effects on pigment networks, while significantly broadening the potential working environments for PSI-integrated bio-hybrid materials.

Photosystem I with benzoquinone analogues incorporated into the A1 binding site

Time-resolved FTIR difference spectroscopy has been used to study photosystem I (PSI) particles with three different benzoquinones [plastoquinone-9 (PQ), 2,6-dimethyl-1,4-benzoquinone (DMBQ), 2,3,5,6-tetrachloro-1,4-benzoquinone (Cl₄BQ)] incorporated into the A₁ binding site. If PSI samples are cooled in the dark to 77 K, the incorporated benzoquinones are shown to be functional, allowing the production of time-resolved (P700⁺A₁^--P700A₁) FTIR difference spectra. If samples are subjected to repetitive flash illumination at room temperature prior to cooling, however, the time-resolved FTIR difference spectra at 77 K display contributions typical of the P700 triplet state (³P700), indicating a loss of functionality of the incorporated benzoquinones, that occurs because of double protonation of the incorporated benzoquinones. The benzoquinone protonation mechanism likely involves nearby water molecules but does not involve the terminal iron-sulfur clusters F_A and F_B. These results and conclusions resolve discrepancies between results from previous low-temperature FTIR and EPR studies on similar PSI samples with PQ incorporated.

Electron Transfer through the Acceptor Side of Photosystem I: Interaction with Exogenous Acceptors and Molecular Oxygen

This review considers the state-of-the-art on mechanisms and alternative pathways of electron transfer in photosynthetic electron transport chains of chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. The mechanisms of electron transport control between photosystems (PS) I and II and the Calvin-Benson cycle are considered. The redistribution of electron fluxes between the noncyclic, cyclic, and pseudocyclic pathways plays an important role in the regulation of photosynthesis. Mathematical modeling of light-induced electron transport processes is considered. Particular attention is given to the electron transfer reactions on the acceptor side of PS I and to interactions of PS I with exogenous acceptors, including molecular oxygen. A kinetic model of PS I and its interaction with exogenous electron acceptors has been developed. This model is based on experimental kinetics of charge recombination in isolated PS I. Kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of the electron transfer reactions in PS I are scrutinized. The free energies of electron transfer between quinone acceptors A_1A/A_1B in the symmetric redox cofactor branches of PS I and iron-sulfur clusters F_X, F_A, and F_B have been estimated. The second-order rate constants of electron transfer from PS I to external acceptors have been determined. The data suggest that byproduct formation of superoxide radical in PS I due to the reduction of molecular oxygen in the A₁ site (Mehler reaction) can exceed 0.3% of the total electron flux in PS I.

Kinetic modeling of electron transfer reactions in photosystem I complexes of various structures with substituted quinone acceptors

The reduction kinetics of the photo-oxidized primary electron donor P₇₀₀ in photosystem I (PS I) complexes from cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 were analyzed within the kinetic model, which considers electron transfer (ET) reactions between P₇₀₀, secondary quinone acceptor A₁, iron-sulfur clusters and external electron donor and acceptors - methylviologen (MV), 2,3-dichloro-naphthoquinone (Cl₂NQ) and oxygen. PS I complexes containing various quinones in the A₁-binding site (phylloquinone PhQ, plastoquinone-9 PQ and Cl₂NQ) as well as F _X-core complexes, depleted of terminal iron-sulfur F _A/F _B clusters, were studied. The acceleration of charge recombination in F _X-core complexes by PhQ/PQ substitution indicates that backward ET from the iron-sulfur clusters involves quinone in the A₁-binding site. The kinetic parameters of ET reactions were obtained by global fitting of the P₇₀₀⁺ reduction with the kinetic model. The free energy gap ΔG ₀ between F _X and F _A/F _B clusters was estimated as -130 meV. The driving force of ET from A₁ to F _X was determined as -50 and -220 meV for PhQ in the A and B cofactor branches, respectively. For PQ in A_1A-site, this reaction was found to be endergonic (ΔG ₀ = +75 meV). The interaction of PS I with external acceptors was quantitatively described in terms of Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The second-order rate constants of ET from F _A/F _B, F _X and Cl₂NQ in the A₁-site of PS I to external acceptors were estimated. The side production of superoxide radical in the A₁-site by oxygen reduction via the Mehler reaction might comprise ≥0.3% of the total electron flow in PS I.

Interaction of various types of photosystem I complexes with exogenous electron acceptors

Interaction of photosystem I (PS I) complexes from cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 containing various quinones in the A₁-site (phylloquinone PhQ in the wild-type strain (WT), and plastoquinone PQ or 2,3-dichloronaphthoquinone Cl ₂ NQ in the menB deletion strain) and different numbers of Fe₄S₄ clusters (intact WT and F_X-core complexes depleted of F_A/F_B centers) with external acceptors has been studied. The efficiency of interaction was estimated by measuring the light-induced absorption changes at 820 nm due to the reduction of the special pair of chlorophylls (P₇₀₀⁺) by an external acceptor(s). It was shown that externally added Cl ₂ NQ is able to effectively accept electrons from the terminal iron-sulfur clusters of PS I. Moreover, the efficiency of Cl ₂ NQ as external acceptor was higher than the efficiency of the commonly used artificial electron acceptor, methylviologen (MV) for both the intact WT PS I and for the F_X-core complexes. The comparison of the efficiency of MV interaction with different types of PS I complexes revealed gradual decrease in the following order: intact WT > menB > F_X-core. The effect of MV on the recombination kinetics in menB complexes of PS I with Cl ₂ NQ in the A₁-site differed significantly from all other PS I samples. The obtained effects are considered in terms of kinetic efficiency of electron acceptors in relation to thermodynamic and structural characteristics of PS I complexes.

Inverted-region electron transfer as a mechanism for enhancing photosynthetic solar energy conversion efficiency

In all photosynthetic organisms, light energy is used to drive electrons from a donor chlorophyll species via a series of acceptors across a biological membrane. These light-induced electron-transfer processes display a remarkably high quantum efficiency, indicating a near-complete inhibition of unproductive charge recombination reactions. It has been suggested that unproductive charge recombination could be inhibited if the reaction occurs in the so-called inverted region. However, inverted-region electron transfer has never been demonstrated in any native photosynthetic system. Here we demonstrate that the unproductive charge recombination in native photosystem I photosynthetic reaction centers does occur in the inverted region, at both room and cryogenic temperatures. Computational modeling of light-induced electron-transfer processes in photosystem I demonstrate a marked decrease in photosynthetic quantum efficiency, from 98% to below 72%, if the unproductive charge recombination process does not occur in the inverted region. Inverted-region electron transfer is therefore demonstrated to be an important mechanism contributing to efficient solar energy conversion in photosystem I. Inverted-region electron transfer does not appear to be an important mechanism in other photosystems; it is likely because of the highly reducing nature of photosystem I, and the energetic requirements placed on the pigments to operate in such a regime, that the inverted-region electron transfer mechanism becomes important.

Structural Factors That Alter the Redox Potential of Quinones in Cyanobacterial and Plant Photosystem I

Using the cyanobacterial and plant photosystem I (PSI) crystal structures and by considering the protonation states of all titratable residues, redox potentials (Em) of the two phylloquinones-A1A and A1B-were calculated. The calculated Em values were Em(A1A) = -773 mV and Em(A1B) = -818 mV for the plant PSI structure and Em(A1A) = -612 mV and Em(A1B) = -719 mV for the cyanobacterial PSI structure. Our analysis of the PSI crystal structures suggested that the side-chain orientations of Lys-B542 and Gln-B678 in the cyanobacterial crystal structure differ from these side-chain orientations in the plant crystal structure. Quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical calculations indicated that the geometry of the cyanobacterial PSI crystal structure was best described as the conformation where Asp-B575 is protonated and A1A is reduced to A1A•-, which might represent the high-potential A1A form ( Rutherford, A. W., Osyczka, A., Rappaport, F. ( 2012 ) FEBS Lett. 586 , 603 - 616 ). Reorienting the Lys-B542 and Gln-B678 side-chains and rearranging the H-bond pattern of the water cluster near Asp-B575 lowered the Em to Em(A1A) = -718 mV and Em(A1B) = -795 mV. It seems possible that PSI has two conformations: the high-potential A1A form and the low-potential A1A form.

Time-resolved infrared spectroscopy in the study of photosynthetic systems

Time-resolved (TR) infrared (IR) spectroscopy in the nanosecond to second timescale has been extensively used, in the last 30 years, in the study of photosynthetic systems. Interesting results have also been obtained at lower time resolution (minutes or even hours). In this review, we first describe the used techniques-dispersive IR, laser diode IR, rapid-scan Fourier transform (FT)IR, step-scan FTIR-underlying the advantages and disadvantages of each of them. Then, the main TR-IR results obtained so far in the investigation of photosynthetic reactions (in reaction centers, in light-harvesting systems, but also in entire membranes or even in living organisms) are presented. Finally, after the general conclusions, the perspectives in the field of TR-IR applied to photosynthesis are described.

Time-resolved visible and infrared absorption spectroscopy data obtained using photosystem I particles with non-native quinones incorporated into the A1 binding site

Time-resolved visible and infrared absorption difference spectroscopy data at both 298 and 77 K were obtained using cyanobacterial menB⁻ mutant photosystem I particles with several non-native quinones incorporated into the A₁ binding site. Data was obtained for photosystem I particles with phylloquinone (2-methyl-3-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone), 2-bromo-1,4-naphthoquinone, 2-chloro-1,4-naphthoquinone, 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, 2,3-dibromo-1,4-naphthoquinone, 2,3-dichloro-1,4-naphthoquinone, and 9,10-anthraquinone incorporated. Transient absorption data were obtained at 487 and 703 nm in the visible spectral range, and 1950–1100 cm⁻¹ in the infrared region. Time constants obtained from fitting the time-resolved infrared and visible data are in good agreement. The measured time constants are crucial for the development of appropriate kinetic models that can describe electron transfer processes in photosystem I, “Modeling Electron Transfer in Photosystem I” Makita and Hastings (2016) [1].