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Tawakol A, Singh P, Mojena M, Pimentel-Santillana M, Emami H, MacNabb M, Rudd JHF, Narula J, Enriquez JA, Través PG, Fernández-Velasco M, Bartrons R, Martín-Sanz P, Fayad ZA, Tejedor A, Boscá L. HIF-1α and PFKFB3 Mediate a Tight Relationship Between Proinflammatory Activation and Anerobic Metabolism in Atherosclerotic Macrophages. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2015; 35:1463-71. [PMID: 25882065 PMCID: PMC4441599 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.115.305551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although it is accepted that macrophage glycolysis is upregulated under hypoxic conditions, it is not known whether this is linked to a similar increase in macrophage proinflammatory activation and whether specific energy demands regulate cell viability in the atheromatous plaque. APPROACH AND RESULTS We studied the interplay between macrophage energy metabolism, polarization, and viability in the context of atherosclerosis. Cultured human and murine macrophages and an in vivo murine model of atherosclerosis were used to evaluate the mechanisms underlying metabolic and inflammatory activity of macrophages in the different atherosclerotic conditions analyzed. We observed that macrophage energetics and inflammatory activation are closely and linearly related, resulting in dynamic calibration of glycolysis to keep pace with inflammatory activity. In addition, we show that macrophage glycolysis and proinflammatory activation mainly depend on hypoxia-inducible factor and on its impact on glucose uptake, and on the expression of hexokinase II and ubiquitous 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase. As a consequence, hypoxia potentiates inflammation and glycolysis mainly via these pathways. Moreover, when macrophages' ability to increase glycolysis through 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase is experimentally attenuated, cell viability is reduced if subjected to proinflammatory or hypoxic conditions, but unaffected under control conditions. In addition to this, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor enhances anerobic glycolysis while exerting a mild proinflammatory activation. CONCLUSIONS These findings, in human and murine cells and in an animal model, show that hypoxia potentiates macrophage glycolytic flux in concert with a proportional upregulation of proinflammatory activity, in a manner that is dependent on both hypoxia-inducible factor -1α and 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Tawakol
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.).
| | - Parmanand Singh
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Marina Mojena
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - María Pimentel-Santillana
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Hamed Emami
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Megan MacNabb
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - James H F Rudd
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Jagat Narula
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - José A Enriquez
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Paqui G Través
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - María Fernández-Velasco
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Ramón Bartrons
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Paloma Martín-Sanz
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Zahi A Fayad
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Alberto Tejedor
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.)
| | - Lisardo Boscá
- From the Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (A.T., P.S., H.E., M.M.); Cardiology Division, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York Presbyterian Hospital, NY (P.S.); Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas 'Alberto Sols' (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Centro de Investigación en Red en Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERHED), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain (M.M., M.P.-S., P.G.T., M.F.-V., P.M.-S., L.B.); Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, Madrid, Spain (M.M., A.T.); Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom (J.H.F.R.); Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY (J.N., Z.A.F.); Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares, Melchor Fernández Almagro, Madrid, Spain (J.A.E.); The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA (P.G.T.); Idipaz, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain (M.F.-V.); and Unitat de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Fisiològiques II, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain (R.B.).
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