Leakage-free membrane fusion induced by the hydrolytic activity of PlcHR(2), a novel phospholipase C/sphingomyelinase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Exploring the antimicrobial potential of chitosan nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization and impact on Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence factors

The escalating antibiotic resistance observed in bacteria poses a significant threat to society, with the global prevalence of resistant strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on the rise. Addressing this challenge necessitates exploring strategies that would complement existing antimicrobial agents, e.g. by substances mitigating bacterial virulence without eliciting selective pressure for resistance emergence. In this respect, free-form chitosan has demonstrated promising efficacy, prompting our investigation into reinforcing its effects through nanoparticle formulations. Our study focuses on the preparation of chitosan nanoparticles under suitable conditions while emphasizing the challenges associated with stability that can affect biological activity. These challenges are mitigated by introducing quaternized chitosan, which ensures colloidal stability in the culture media. Our approach led to the production of trimethylchitosan nanoparticles with a median size of 103 nm, circularity of 0.967, and a charge of 14.9 ± 3.1 mV, stable within a one-month period in a water stock solution, showing promising attributes for further valorization. Furthermore, the study delves into the antimicrobial activity of trimethylchitosan nanoparticles on Pseudomonas aeruginosa and confirms the benefits of both nanoformulation and modification of chitosan, as our prepared nanoparticles inhibit 50% of the bacterial population at concentration ≥160 mg L-1 within tested strains. Additionally, we identified a concentration of 5 mg L-1 that no longer impedes bacterial growth, allowing reliable verification of the effect of the prepared nanoparticles on Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence factors, including motility, protease activity, hemolytic activity, rhamnolipids, pyocyanin, and biofilm production. Although trimethylchitosan nanoparticles exhibit promise as an effective antibiofilm agent (reducing biofilm development by 50% at concentrations ranging from 80 to 160 mg L-1) their impact on virulence manifestation is likely not directly associated with quorum sensing. Instead, it can probably be attributed to non-specific interactions with the bacterial surface. This exploration provides valuable insights into the potential of quaternized chitosan nanoparticles in addressing Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections and underscores the multifaceted nature of their antimicrobial effects.

Phospholipase C: underrated players in microbial infections

During bacterial infections, one or more virulence factors are required to support the survival, growth, and colonization of the pathogen within the host, leading to the symptomatic characteristic of the disease. The outcome of bacterial infections is determined by several factors from both host as well as pathogen origin. Proteins and enzymes involved in cellular signaling are important players in determining the outcome of host-pathogen interactions. phospholipase C (PLCs) participate in cellular signaling and regulation by virtue of their ability to hydrolyze membrane phospholipids into di-acyl-glycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3), which further causes the activation of other signaling pathways involved in various processes, including immune response. A total of 13 PLC isoforms are known so far, differing in their structure, regulation, and tissue-specific distribution. Different PLC isoforms have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and infectious diseases; however, their roles in infectious diseases are not clearly understood. Many studies have suggested the prominent roles of both host and pathogen-derived PLCs during infections. PLCs have also been shown to contribute towards disease pathogenesis and the onset of disease symptoms. In this review, we have discussed the contribution of PLCs as a determinant of the outcome of host-pathogen interaction and pathogenesis during bacterial infections of human importance.

Differences in the sequence of PlcR transcriptional regulator binding site affect sphingomyelinase production in Bacillus cereus

Bacillus cereus is an opportunistic pathogen that often causes severe infections such as bacteremia, with sphingomyelinase (SMase) being a crucial virulence factor. Although many strains of B. cereus carry the SMase gene, they are classified as SMase-producing and non-producing strains. The reason for different SMase production among B. cereus strains remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the relationship between SMase and the PlcR transcriptional regulation system to clarify the mechanism leading to varied SMase production among B. cereus strains. We analyzed the sequence of the PlcR box, which is a transcriptional regulator binding site, located at the promoter region of SMase and phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase C. Based on differences in the PlcR box sequences, we classified the B. cereus strains into three groups (I, II, and III). SMase expression and activity were hardly detected in Group III strains. In Group I strains, SMase activity and its expression were maximal at the onset of the stationary phase and decreased during the stationary phase, whereas those were maintained during the stationary phase in Group II stains. On injection of B. cereus strains into mice or incubation with macrophages for phagocytosis assay, the SMase-producing Group I and II strains showed higher pathogenicity than Group III strains. These findings suggest that PlcR box sequence in B. cereus affects the production of SMase, which may provide important clinical information for the detection of highly pathogenic B. cereus strains. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Bacterial phospholipases C with dual activity: phosphatidylcholinesterase and sphingomyelinase

Bacterial phospholipases and sphingomyelinases are lipolytic esterases that are structurally and evolutionarily heterogeneous. These enzymes play crucial roles as virulence factors in several human and animal infectious diseases. Some bacterial phospholipases C (PLCs) have both phosphatidylcholinesterase and sphingomyelinase C activities. Among them, Listeria  monocytogenes PlcB, Clostridium perfringens PLC, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PlcH are the most deeply understood. In silico predictions of substrates docking with these three bacterial enzymes provide evidence that they interact with different substrates at the same active site. This review discusses structural aspects, substrate specificity, and the mechanism of action of those bacterial enzymes on target cells and animal infection models to shed light on their roles in pathogenesis.

Synergistic effects of polymyxin and ionic liquids on lipid vesicle membrane stability and aggregation

Ionic liquids (ILs) have been investigated for potential antibacterial and antibiotic applications due to their ability to destabilize and permeabilize the lipid bilayers in cell membranes. Bacterial assays have shown that combining ILs with antibiotics can provide a synergistic enhancement of their antibacterial activities. We have characterized the mechanism by which the conventional ILs 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BMICl) and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (BMIBF₄) enhance the lipid membrane permeabilization of the well-known antibiotic polymyxin B (PMB). We studied the sizes and membrane permeabilities of multilamellar and unilamellar lipid bilayer vesicles in the presence of ILs alone in aqueous solution, PMB alone, and ILs combined together with PMB. Light scattering-based experiments show that vesicle sizes dramatically increase when ILs are combined with PMB, which suggests that the materials combine to synergistically enhance lipid membrane disruption leading to vesicle aggregation. Lipid bilayer leakage experiments using tris (2,2'-bipyridyl) ruthenium (II) (Ru(bpy)₃²⁺) trapped in lipid vesicles, in which the trapped Ru(bpy)₃²⁺ fluorescence lifetime increases when it leaks out of the vesicle, show that combining BMIBF₄ and PMB together permeabilize the membrane significantly more than with PMB or the IL alone. This demonstrates that ILs can assist in antibiotic permeabilization of lipid bilayers which could explain the increased antibiotic activities in the presence of ILs in solution.

Thermally-induced aggregation and fusion of protein-free lipid vesicles

Membrane fusion is an important phenomenon in cell biology and pathology. This phenomenon can be modeled using vesicles of defined size and lipid composition. Up to now fusion models typically required the use of chemical (polyethyleneglycol, cations) or enzymatic catalysts (phospholipases). We present here a model of lipid vesicle fusion induced by heat. Large unilamellar vesicles consisting of a phospholipid (dioleoylphosphatidylcholine), cholesterol and diacylglycerol in a 43:57:3 mol ratio were employed. In this simple system, fusion was the result of thermal fluctuations, above 60 °C. A similar system containing phospholipid and cholesterol but no diacylglycerol was observed to aggregate at and above 60 °C, in the absence of fusion. Vesicle fusion occurred under our experimental conditions only when (31)P NMR and cryo-transmission electron microscopy of the lipid mixtures used in vesicle preparation showed non-lamellar lipid phase formation (hexagonal and cubic). Non-lamellar structures are probably the result of lipid reassembly of the products of individual fusion events, or of fusion intermediates. A temperature-triggered mechanism of lipid reassembly might have occurred at various stages of protocellular evolution.

Histones cause aggregation and fusion of lipid vesicles containing phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate

In a previous article, we demonstrated that histones (H1 or histone octamers) interact with negatively charged bilayers and induce extensive aggregation of vesicles containing phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PIP) and, to a lesser extent, vesicles containing phosphatidylinositol (PI). Here, we found that vesicles containing PIP, but not those containing PI, can undergo fusion induced by histones. Fusion was demonstrated through the observation of intervesicular mixing of total lipids and inner monolayer lipids, and by ultrastructural and confocal microscopy studies. Moreover, in both PI- and PIP-containing vesicles, histones caused permeabilization and release of vesicular aqueous contents, but the leakage mechanism was different (all-or-none for PI and graded release for PIP vesicles). These results indicate that histones could play a role in the remodeling of the nuclear envelope that takes place during the mitotic cycle.

Biophysical properties of sphingosine, ceramides and other simple sphingolipids

Some of the simplest sphingolipids, namely sphingosine, ceramide and their phosphorylated compounds [sphingosine 1-phosphate (Sph-1-P) and ceramide 1-phosphate (Cer-1-P)], are potent metabolic regulators. Each of these lipids modifies in marked and specific ways the physical properties of the cell membranes, in what can be the basis for some of their physiological actions. The present paper is an overview of the mechanisms by which these sphingolipid signals, sphingosine and ceramide, in particular, are able to modify the properties of cell membranes.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa outer membrane vesicles modulate host immune responses by targeting the Toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway

Bacteria can naturally secrete outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) as pathogenic factors, while these vesicles may also serve as immunologic regulators if appropriately prepared. However, it is largely unknown whether Pseudomonas aeruginosa OMVs can activate inflammatory responses and whether immunization with OMVs can provide immune protection against subsequent infection. We purified and identified OMVs, which were then used to infect lung epithelial cells in vitro as well as C57BL/6J mice to investigate the immune response and the underlying signaling pathway. The results showed that OMVs generated from P. aeruginosa wild-type strain PAO1 were more cytotoxic to alveolar epithelial cells than those from quorum-sensing (QS)-deficient strain PAO1-ΔlasR. The levels of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6, increased following OMV infection. Compared with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), lysed OMVs in which the membrane structures were broken induced a weak immune response. Furthermore, expression levels of TLR4-mediated responders (i.e., cytokines) were markedly downregulated by the TLR4 inhibitor E5564. Active immunization with OMVs or passive transfer of sera with a high cytokine quantity acquired from OMV-immunized mice could protect healthy mice against subsequent lethal PAO1 challenges (1.5 × 10(11) CFU). Collectively, these findings indicate that naturally secreted P. aeruginosa OMVs may trigger significant inflammatory responses via the TLR4 signaling pathway and protect mice against pseudomonal lung infection.

Structure and interaction with phospholipids of a prokaryotic lipoxygenase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Lipoxygenases (LOXs), which are essential in eukaryotes, have no confirmed function in prokaryotes that are devoid of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The structure of a secretable LOX from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa_LOX), the first available from a prokaryote, presents significant differences with respect to eukaryotic LOXs, including a cluster of helices acting as a lid to the active center. The mobility of the lid and the structural variability of the N-terminal region of Pa_LOX was confirmed by comparing 2 crystal forms. The binding pocket contains a phosphatidylethanolamine phospholipid with branches of 18 (sn-1) and 14/16 (sn-2) carbon atoms in length. Carbon atoms from the sn-1 chain approach the catalytic iron in a manner that sheds light on how the enzymatic reaction might proceed. The findings in these studies suggest that Pa_LOX has the capacity to extract and modify unsaturated phospholipids from eukaryotic membranes, allowing this LOX to play a role in the interaction of P. aeruginosa with host cells.

Recruitment of a phospholipase C/sphingomyelinase into non-lamellar lipid droplets during hydrolysis of lipid bilayers

When giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) composed of sphingomyelin, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and cholesterol are treated with PlcHR(2), a phospholipase C/sphingomyelinase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the initial stages of lipid hydrolysis do not cause large changes in vesicle morphology (Ibarguren et al., 2011). However, when hydrolysis progresses confocal fluorescence microscopy reveals the formation of lipid aggregates, whose morphology is not compatible with that of bilayers. Smaller vesicles or droplets can also be seen inside the GUV. Our studies indicate that these aggregates or droplets are enriched in the non-lamellar lipid ceramide, an end-product of PlcHR(2) reaction. Moreover, the aggregates/droplets appear enriched in the hydrolytic enzyme PlcHR(2). At a final stage GUVs containing the enzyme-enriched droplets disintegrate and vanish from the microscope field. The observed non-lamellar enzyme-rich structures may be related to intermediates in the process of aggregation and fusion although the experimental design prevents vesicle free diffusion in the aqueous medium, thus actual aggregation or fusion cannot be observed.

The plant non-specific phospholipase C gene family. Novel competitors in lipid signalling

Non-specific phospholipases C (NPCs) were discovered as a novel type of plant phospholipid-cleaving enzyme homologous to bacterial phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipases C and responsible for lipid conversion during phosphate-limiting conditions. The six-gene family was established in Arabidopsis, and growing evidence suggests the involvement of two articles NPCs in biotic and abiotic stress responses as well as phytohormone actions. In addition, the diacylglycerol produced via NPCs is postulated to participate in membrane remodelling, general lipid metabolism and cross-talk with other phospholipid signalling systems in plants. This review summarises information concerning this new plant protein family and focusses on its sequence analysis, biochemical properties, cellular and tissue distribution and physiological functions. Possible modes of action are also discussed.

Imaging the early stages of phospholipase C/sphingomyelinase activity on vesicles containing coexisting ordered-disordered and gel-fluid domains

The binding and early stages of activity of a phospholipase C/sphingomyelinase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa on giant unilamellar vesicles (GUV) have been monitored using fluorescence confocal microscopy. Both the lipids and the enzyme were labeled with specific fluorescent markers. GUV consisted of a mixture of phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, phosphatidylethanolamine, and cholesterol in equimolar ratios, to which 5-10 mol% of the enzyme end-product ceramide and/or diacylglycerol were occasionally added. Morphological examination of the GUV in the presence of enzyme reveals that, although the enzyme diffuses rapidly throughout the observation chamber, detectable enzyme binding appears to be a slow, random process, with new bound-enzyme-containing vesicles appearing for several minutes. Enzyme binding to the vesicles appears to be a cooperative process. After the initial cluster of bound enzyme is detected, further binding and catalytic activity follow rapidly. After the activity has started, the enzyme is not released by repeated washing, suggesting a "scooting" mechanism for the hydrolytic activity. The enzyme preferentially binds the more disordered domains, and, in most cases, the catalytic activity causes the disordering of the other domains. Simultaneously, peanut- or figure-eight-shaped vesicles containing two separate lipid domains become spherical. At a further stage of lipid hydrolysis, lipid aggregates are formed and vesicles disintegrate.

Effects of bilayer composition and physical properties on the phospholipase C and sphingomyelinase activities of Clostridium perfringens α-toxin

α-Toxin, a major determinant of Clostridium perfringens toxicity, exhibits both phospholipase C and sphingomyelinase activities. Our studies with large unilamellar vesicles containing a variety of lipid mixtures reveal that both lipase activities are enhanced by cholesterol and by lipids with an intrinsic negative curvature, e.g. phosphatidylethanolamine. Conversely lysophospholipids, that possess a positive intrinsic curvature, inhibit the α-toxin lipase activities. Phospholipids with a net negative charge do not exert any major effect on the lipase activities, and the same lack of effect is seen with the lysosomal lipid bis (monoacylglycero) phosphate. Ganglioside GT1b has a clear inhibitory effect, while the monosialic ganglioside GM3 is virtually ineffectual even when incorporated at 6mol % in the vesicles. The length of the lag periods appears to be inversely related to the maximum (post-lag) enzyme activities. Moreover, and particularly in the presence of cholesterol, lag times increase with pH. Both lipase activities are sensitive to vesicle size, but in opposite ways: while phospholipase C is higher with larger vesicles, sphingomyelinase activity is lower. The combination of our results with previous structural studies suggests that α-toxin lipase activities have distinct, but partially overlapping and interacting active sites.

End-products diacylglycerol and ceramide modulate membrane fusion induced by a phospholipase C/sphingomyelinase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa

A phospholipase C/sphingomyelinase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been assayed on vesicles containing phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin, phosphatidylethanolamine and cholesterol at equimolar ratios. The enzyme activity modifies the bilayer chemical composition giving rise to diacylglycerol (DAG) and ceramide (Cer). Assays of enzyme activity, enzyme-induced aggregation and fusion have been performed. Ultrastructural evidence of vesicle fusion at various stages of the process is presented, based on cryo-EM observations. The two enzyme lipidic end-products, DAG and Cer, have opposite effects on the bilayer physical properties; the former abolishes lateral phase separation, while the latter generates a new gel phase [Sot et al., FEBS Lett. 582, 3230-3236 (2008)]. Addition of either DAG, or Cer, or both to the liposome mixture causes an increase in enzyme binding to the bilayers and a decrease in lag time of hydrolysis. These two lipids also have different effects on the enzyme activity, DAG enhancing enzyme-induced vesicle aggregation and fusion, Cer inhibiting the hydrolytic activity. These effects are explained in terms of the different physical properties of the two lipids. DAG increases bilayers fluidity and decreases lateral separation of lipids, thus increasing enzyme activity and substrate accessibility to the enzyme. Cer has the opposite effect mainly because of its tendency to sequester sphingomyelin, an enzyme substrate, into rigid domains, presumably less accessible to the enzyme.

Sphingomyelin metabolism at the plasma membrane: implications for bioactive sphingolipids

The plasma membrane (PM) is a major resource for production of bioactive lipids and contains a large proportion of the cellular sphingomyelin (SM) content. Consequently, the regulation of SM levels at the PM by enzymes such as sphingomyelinase (SMase) and SM synthase 2 (SMS2) can have profound effects - both on biophysical properties of the membrane, but also on cellular signaling. Over the past 20 years, there has been considerable research into the physiological and cellular functions associated with regulation of SM levels, notably with regards to the production of ceramide. In this review, we will summarize this research with particular focus on the SMases and SMS2. We will outline what biological functions are associated with SM metabolism/production at the PM, and discuss what we believe are major challenges that need to be addressed in future studies.

A complex extracellular sphingomyelinase of Pseudomonas aeruginosa inhibits angiogenesis by selective cytotoxicity to endothelial cells

The hemolytic phospholipase C (PlcHR) expressed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the original member of a Phosphoesterase Superfamily, which includes phosphorylcholine-specific phospholipases C (PC-PLC) produced by frank and opportunistic pathogens. PlcHR, but not all its family members, is also a potent sphingomyelinase (SMase). Data presented herein indicate that picomolar (pM) concentrations of PlcHR are selectively lethal to endothelial cells (EC). An RGD motif of PlcHR contributes to this selectivity. Peptides containing an RGD motif (i.e., GRGDS), but not control peptides (i.e., GDGRS), block the effects of PlcHR on calcium signaling and cytotoxicity to EC. Moreover, RGD variants of PlcHR (e.g., RGE, KGD) are significantly reduced in their binding and toxicity, but retain the enzymatic activity of the wild type PlcHR. PlcHR also inhibits several EC-dependent in vitro assays (i.e., EC migration, EC invasion, and EC tubule formation), which represent key processes involved in angiogenesis (i.e., formation of new blood vessels from existing vasculature). Finally, the impact of PlcHR in an in vivo model of angiogenesis in transgenic zebrafish, and ones treated with an antisense morpholino to knock down a key blood cell regulator, were evaluated because in vitro assays cannot fully represent the complex processes of angiogenesis. As little as 2 ng/embryo of PlcHR was lethal to approximately 50% of EGFP-labeled EC at 6 h after injection of embryos at 48 hpf (hours post-fertilization). An active site mutant of PlcHR (Thr178Ala) exhibited 120-fold reduced inhibitory activity in the EC invasion assay, and 20 ng/embryo elicited no detectable inhibitory activity in the zebrafish model. Taken together, these observations are pertinent to the distinctive vasculitis and poor wound healing associated with P. aeruginosa sepsis and suggest that the potent antiangiogenic properties of PlcHR are worthy of further investigation for the treatment of diseases where angiogenesis contributes pathological conditions (e.g., vascularization of tumors, diabetic retinopathy).

Long-distance delivery of bacterial virulence factors by Pseudomonas aeruginosa outer membrane vesicles

Bacteria use a variety of secreted virulence factors to manipulate host cells, thereby causing significant morbidity and mortality. We report a mechanism for the long-distance delivery of multiple bacterial virulence factors, simultaneously and directly into the host cell cytoplasm, thus obviating the need for direct interaction of the pathogen with the host cell to cause cytotoxicity. We show that outer membrane-derived vesicles (OMV) secreted by the opportunistic human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa deliver multiple virulence factors, including beta-lactamase, alkaline phosphatase, hemolytic phospholipase C, and Cif, directly into the host cytoplasm via fusion of OMV with lipid rafts in the host plasma membrane. These virulence factors enter the cytoplasm of the host cell via N-WASP-mediated actin trafficking, where they rapidly distribute to specific subcellular locations to affect host cell biology. We propose that secreted virulence factors are not released individually as naked proteins into the surrounding milieu where they may randomly contact the surface of the host cell, but instead bacterial derived OMV deliver multiple virulence factors simultaneously and directly into the host cell cytoplasm in a coordinated manner.

Involvement of a phospholipase C in the hemolytic activity of a clinical strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens

Background

Pseudomonas fluorescens is a ubiquitous Gram-negative bacterium frequently encountered in hospitals as a contaminant of injectable material and surfaces. This psychrotrophic bacterium, commonly described as unable to grow at temperatures above 32°C, is now considered non pathogenic. We studied a recently identified clinical strain of P. fluorescens biovar I, MFN1032, which is considered to cause human lung infection and can grow at 37°C in laboratory conditions.

Results

We found that MFN1032 secreted extracellular factors with a lytic potential at least as high as that of MF37, a psychrotrophic strain of P. fluorescens or the mesophilic opportunistic pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. We demonstrated the direct, and indirect – through increases in biosurfactant release – involvement of a phospholipase C in the hemolytic activity of this bacterium. Sequence analysis assigned this phospholipase C to a new group of phospholipases C different from those produced by P. aeruginosa. We show that changes in PlcC production have pleiotropic effects and that plcC overexpression and plcC extinction increase MFN1032 toxicity and colonization, respectively.

Conclusion

This study provides the first demonstration that a PLC is involved in the secreted hemolytic activity of a clinical strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens. Moreover, this phospholipase C seems to belong to a complex biological network associated with the biosurfactant production.

Ceramide-enriched membrane domains in red blood cells and the mechanism of sphingomyelinase-induced hot-cold hemolysis

Hot-cold hemolysis is the phenomenon whereby red blood cells, preincubated at 37 degrees C in the presence of certain agents, undergo rapid hemolysis when transferred to 4 degrees C. The mechanism of this phenomenon is not understood. PlcHR 2, a phospholipase C/sphingomyelinase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, that is the prototype of a new phosphatase superfamily, induces hot-cold hemolysis. We found that the sphingomyelinase, but not the phospholipase C activity, is essential for hot-cold hemolysis because the phenomenon occurs not only in human erythrocytes that contain both phosphatidylcholine (PC) and sphingomyelin (SM) but also in goat erythrocytes, which lack PC. However, in horse erythrocytes, with a large proportion of PC and almost no SM, hot-cold hemolysis induced by PlcHR 2 is not observed. Fluorescence microscopy observations confirm the formation of ceramide-enriched domains as a result of PlcHR 2 activity. After cooling down to 4 degrees C, the erythrocyte ghost membranes arising from hemolysis contain large, ceramide-rich domains. We suggest that formation of these rigid domains in the originally flexible cell makes it fragile, thus highly susceptible to hemolysis. We also interpret the slow hemolysis observed at 37 degrees C as a phenomenon of gradual release of aqueous contents, induced by the sphingomyelinase activity, as described by Ruiz-Arguello et al. [(1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 26616]. These hypotheses are supported by the fact that ceramidase, which is known to facilitate slow hemolysis at 37 degrees C, actually hinders hot-cold hemolysis. Differential scanning calorimetry of erytrocyte membranes treated with PlcHR 2 demonstrates the presence of ceramide-rich domains that are rigid at 4 degrees C but fluid at 37 degrees C. Ceramidase treatment causes the disapperance of the calorimetric signal assigned to ceramide-rich domains. Finally, in liposomes composed of SM, PC, and cholesterol, which exhibit slow release of aqueous contents at 37 degrees C, addition of 10 mol % ceramide and transfer to 4 degrees C cause a large increase in the rate of solute efflux.

Cholesterol displacement by ceramide in sphingomyelin-containing liquid-ordered domains, and generation of gel regions in giant lipidic vesicles

Fluorescence confocal microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry are used in combination to study the phase behaviour of bilayers composed of PC:PE:SM:Chol equimolecular mixtures, in the presence or absence of 10 mol% egg ceramide. In the absence of ceramide, separate liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered domains are observed in giant unilamellar vesicles. In the presence of ceramide, gel-like domains appear within the liquid-ordered regions. The melting properties of these gel-like domains resemble those of SM:ceramide binary mixtures, suggesting Chol displacement by ceramide from SM:Chol-rich liquid-ordered regions. Thus three kinds of domains coexist within a single vesicle in the presence of ceramide: gel, liquid-ordered, and liquid-disordered. In contrast, when 10 mol% egg diacylglycerol is added instead of ceramide, homogeneous vesicles, consisting only of liquid-disordered bilayers, are observed.