Interleukin 18: friend or foe in cancer

Bioinformatics analysis and validation of genes related to paclitaxel's anti-breast cancer effect through immunogenic cell death

Research indicated that Paclitaxel (PTX) can induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) through immunogenic modulation. However, the combination of PTX and ICD has not been extensively studied in breast cancer (BRCA). The TCGA-BRCA and GSE20685 datasets were enrolled in this study. Samples from the TCGA-BRCA dataset were consistently clustered based on selected immunogenic cell death-related genes (ICD-RGs). Next, candidate genes were obtained by overlapping differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between BRCA and normal groups, intersecting genes common to DEGs between cluster1 and cluster2 and hub module genes, and target genes of PTX from five databases. The univariate Cox algorithm and the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) were performed to obtain biomarkers and build a risk model. Following observing the immune microenvironment in differential risk subgroups, single-gene gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was carried out in all biomarkers. Finally, the expression of biomarkers was analyzed. Enrichment analysis showed that 626 intersecting genes were linked with inflammatory response. Further five biomarkers (CHI3L1, IL18, PAPLN, SH2D2A, and UBE2L6) were identified and a risk model was built. The model's performance was validated using GSE20685 dataset. Furthermore, the biomarkers were enriched with adaptive immune response. Lastly, the experimental results indicated that the alterations in IL18, SH2D2A, and CHI3L1 expression after treatment matched those in the public database. In this study, Five PTX-ICD-related biomarkers (CHI3L1, IL18, PAPLN, SH2D2A, and UBE2L6) were identified to aid in predicting BRCA treatment outcomes.

Interleukins and interferons in mesenchymal stromal stem cell-based gene therapy of cancer

The tumor microenvironment is importantly shaped by various cytokines, where interleukins (ILs) and interferons (IFNs) shape the balance of immune activity within tumor niche and associated lymphoid organs. Their importance in activation and tuning of both innate and adaptive immune responses prompted their use in several clinical trials, albeit with limited therapeutic efficacy and risk of toxicity due to systemic administration. Increasing preclinical evidence suggests that local delivery of ILs and IFNs could significantly increase their effectiveness, while simultaneously attenuate the known side effects and issues related to their biological activity. A prominent way to achieve this is to use cell-based delivery vehicles. For this purpose, mesenchymal stromal stem cells (MSCs) are considered an almost ideal candidate. Namely, MSCs can be obtained in large quantities and from obtainable sources (e.g. umbilical cord or adipose tissue), their ex vivo expansion is relatively straightforward compared to other cell types and they possess very low immunogenicity making them suitable for allogeneic use. Importantly, MSCs have shown an intrinsic capacity to respond to tumor-directed chemotaxis. This review provides a focused and detailed discussion on MSC-based gene therapy using ILs and IFNs, engineering techniques and insights on potential future advancements.

HPV38 impairs UV-induced transcriptional activation of the IL-18 pro-inflammatory cytokine

IMPORTANCE

Here, we demonstrate that the direct binding of p53 on the IL-18 promoter region regulates its gene expression. However, the presence of E6 and E7 from human papillomavirus type 38 impairs this mechanism via a new inhibitory complex formed by DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1)/PKR/ΔNp73α, which binds to the region formerly occupied by p53 in primary keratinocytes.

Cerebrospinal fluid immunological cytokines predict intracranial tumor response to immunotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer patients with brain metastases

Background

Immunotherapy has shown intracranial efficacy in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with brain metastases. However, predictive biomarkers for intracranial response to immunotherapy are lacking. This post-hoc analysis aimed to explore the potential of immunological cytokines in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to predict intracranial tumor response to immunotherapy in patients with brain metastases.

Methods

Treatment-naive NSCLC patients with brain metastases who received camrelizumab plus chemotherapy were enrolled. Paired plasma and CSF samples were prospectively collected at baseline and the first treatment assessment. All samples were analyzed for 92 immuno-oncology cytokines using Olink's panels.

Results

A total of 28 patients were included in this analysis. At baseline, most immunological cytokines were significantly lower in CSF than in plasma, whereas a subset comprising CD83, PTN, TNFRSF21, TWEAK, ICOSLG, DCN, IL-8, and MCP-1, was increased in CSF. Baseline CSF levels of LAMP3 were significantly higher in patients with intracranial tumor response, while the levels of CXCL10, IL-12, CXCL11, IL-18, TIE2, HGF, and PDCD1 were significantly lower. Furthermore, the CXCL10, CXCL11, TIE2, PDCD1, IL-18, HGF, and LAMP3 in CSF were also significantly associated with intracranial progression-free survival for immunotherapy. The identified cytokines in CSF were decreased at the first treatment evaluation in patients with intracranial tumor response. The logistic CSF immuno-cytokine model yielded an AUC of 0.91, as compared to PD-L1 expression (AUC of 0.72).

Conclusions

Immunological cytokines in CSF could predict intracranial tumor response to immunotherapy in NSCLC patients with brain metastases, and the findings warrant validation in a larger prospective cohort study.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04211090.

The Therapeutic Values of IL-7/IL-7R and the Recombinant Derivatives in Glioma: A Narrative Review

Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is essential for maintaining the immune system's defense functions by regulating the development and homeostasis of lymphocytes. Findings have shown the high efficacy of IL-7/IL-7 receptor (IL-7R)-based immunotherapy on various malignancies, with confirmation in both animal models and humans. In recent years, the progression-free survival and overall survival of patients suffering from gliomas significantly increased by introducing C7R-expressing chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells and long-acting IL-7 agonists such as NT-I7 (rhIL-7-hyFc, Efineptakin alfa). However, the effect of IL-7-based immunotherapies on the resistance of tumor cells to chemotherapy (when used simultaneously with chemotherapy agents) is still ambiguous and requires further studies. This article first reviews the pathophysiological roles of IL-7/IL-7R in tumors, focusing on gliomas. Subsequently, it discusses the therapeutic values of IL-7/IL-7R and the recombinant derivatives in gliomas.

Membrane anchored IL-18 linked to constitutively active TLR4 and CD40 improves human T cell antitumor capacities for adoptive cell therapy

Background

Adoptive transfer of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) or blood T cells genetically redirected by an antitumor TCR or CAR induces a strong antitumor response in a proportion of patients with cancer; however, the therapeutic efficacy is often limited by rapid decline in T cell functions. Coadministering supportive cytokines frequently provokes systemic side effects preventing their broad clinical application. We recently showed that cytokines can be anchored to the cell membrane in a functional fashion and that cytokine receptor signaling can synergize with TLR4 and CD40 signaling. Here, we aimed at augmenting T cell activation by simultaneous signaling through the cytokine receptor, toll-like receptor and TNF-type receptor using IL-18, TLR4 and CD40 as prototypes.

Methods

Genes were expressed on electroporation of in vitro-transcribed mRNA in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from healthy donors redirected against melanoma cells with an anti-melanotransferrin CAR and in TILs derived from melanoma patients. Functional assays included the activation of signaling pathways, expression of activation and differentiation markers, cytokine secretion and killing of melanoma target cells.

Results

To provide IL-18 costimulation to T cells in-cis while avoiding systemic effects, we genetically anchored IL-18 to the T cell membrane, either alone (memIL-18) or fused with constitutively active (ca)TLR4 and caCD40 signaling domains arranged in tandem, creating a synthetic ‘all-in-one’ memIL-18-TLR4-CD40 receptor. MemIL-18-TLR4-CD40, but not memIL-18, triggered strong NF-κB activation in cells lacking the IL-18 receptor, attesting to functionality of the TLR-CD40 moiety. While the membrane-anchored cytokine was found to act mainly in-cis, some T cell activation in-trans was also observed. The electroporated T cells exhibited spontaneous T-bet upregulation and IFN-γ and TNF-α secretion. Melanoma-induced activation of CAR-T cells and TILs as manifested by cytokine secretion and cytolytic activity was substantially augmented by both constructs, with memIL-18-TLR4-CD40 exerting stronger effects than memIL-18 alone.

Conclusions

Linking membrane anchored IL-18 with caTLR4 and caCD40 signaling in one hybrid transmembrane protein provides simultaneous activation of three T cell costimulatory pathways through one genetically engineered membrane molecule, strongly amplifying T cell functions for adoptive T cell therapy of cancer.

IL-18: The Forgotten Cytokine in Dengue Immunopathogenesis

Dengue fever is an infection by the dengue virus (DENV) transmitted by vector mosquitoes. It causes many infections in tropical and subtropical countries every year, thus posing a severe disease threat. Cytokine storms, one condition where many proinflammatory cytokines are mass-produced, might lead to cellular dysfunction in tissue/organ failures and often facilitate severe dengue disease in patients. Interleukin- (IL-) 18, similar to IL-1β, is a proinflammatory cytokine produced during inflammation following inflammasome activation. Inflammatory stimuli, including microbial infections, damage signals, and cytokines, all induce the production of IL-18. High serum IL-18 is remarkably correlated with severely ill dengue patients; however, its possible roles have been less explored. Based on the clinical and basic findings, this review discusses the potential immunopathogenic role of IL-18 when it participates in DENV infection and dengue disease progression based on existing findings and related past studies.

The interleukin-1 cytokine family members: Role in cancer pathogenesis and potential therapeutic applications in cancer immunotherapy

The interleukin-1 (IL-1) family is one of the first described cytokine families and consists of eight cytokines (IL-1β, IL-1α, IL-18, IL-33, IL-36α, IL-36β, IL-36γ and IL-37) and three receptor antagonists (IL-1Ra, IL-36Ra and IL-38). The family members are known to play an essential role in inflammation. The importance of inflammation in cancer has been well established in the past decades. This review sets out to give an overview of the role of each IL-1 family member in cancer pathogenesis and show their potential as potential anticancer drug candidates. First, the molecular structure is described. Next, both the pro- and anti-tumoral properties are highlighted. Additionally, a critical interpretation of current literature is given. To conclude, the IL-1 family is a toolbox with a collection of powerful tools that can be considered as potential drugs or drug targets.

Impact of Fusobacterium nucleatum in the gastrointestinal tract on natural killer cells

BACKGROUND

Gut microbial dysbiosis contributes to the development and progression of colorectal cancer (CRC). Natural killer (NK) cells are involved in early defense mechanisms to kill infective pathogens and tumor cells by releasing chemokines and cytokines. To better understand the relationship between the gut microbiome and CRC, it was hypothesized here that a high abundance of Fusobacterium nucleatum (F. nucleatum) in the gastrointestinal tract could cause reduced NK cell activity.

AIM

To identify associations between gastrointestinal tract F. nucleatum levels and NK cell activity.

METHODS

In vitro experiments were performed on NK cells treated with F. nucleatum, Peptostreptococcus anaerobius, and Parvimonas micra to identify the effects of gut microbiome species on NK cells. Following 24 and 48 h of treatment, NK cell counts were measured. In parallel studies, C57BL/6 mice were given broad-spectrum antibiotics in their drinking water to reduce resident gut flora. After 3 wk, the mice received the various bacterial species or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) via oral gavage every 2 d for 6 wk. At the study end, blood samples were acquired to perform NK cell activity assessment and cytokine analysis. Intestinal tissues were collected and analyzed via immunohistochemistry (IHC).

RESULTS

The data show that after 3 wk of broad-spectrum antibiotic treatment, levels of total bacteria and F. nucleatum were markedly decreased in mice. Gavage of F. nucleatum significantly decreased NK cell activity relative to the activities of cells from mice treated with antibiotics only and PBS. The administration of F. nucleatum decreased the proportion of NK46⁺ cells based on IHC staining and increased the production of interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α.

CONCLUSION

High levels of F. nucleatum in the gastrointestinal tract reduced NK cell activity in mice, and the decrease in NK cell activity might be affected by increased pro-inflammatory cytokines after F. nucleatum treatment.

Gene-Edited Interleukin CAR-T Cells Therapy in the Treatment of Malignancies: Present and Future

In recent years, chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T cells) have been faced with the problems of weak proliferation and poor persistence in the treatment of some malignancies. Researchers have been trying to perfect the function of CAR-T by genetically modifying its structure. In addition to the participation of T cell receptor (TCR) and costimulatory signals, immune cytokines also exert a decisive role in the activation and proliferation of T cells. Therefore, genetic engineering strategies were used to generate cytokines to enhance tumor killing function of CAR-T cells. When CAR-T cells are in contact with target tumor tissue, the proliferation ability and persistence of T cells can be improved by structurally or inductively releasing immunoregulatory molecules to the tumor region. There are a large number of CAR-T cells studies on gene-edited cytokines, and the most common cytokines involved are interleukins (IL-7, IL-12, IL-15, IL-18, IL-21, IL-23). Methods for the construction of gene-edited interleukin CAR-T cells include co-expression of single interleukin, two interleukin, interleukin combined with other cytokines, interleukin receptors, interleukin subunits, and fusion inverted cytokine receptors (ICR). Preclinical and clinical trials have yielded positive results, and many more are under way. By reading a large number of literatures, we summarized the functional characteristics of some members of the interleukin family related to tumor immunotherapy, and described the research status of gene-edited interleukin CAR-T cells in the treatment of malignant tumors. The objective is to explore the optimized strategy of gene edited interleukin-CAR-T cell function.

The Role of the Oral Microbiota in the Etiopathogenesis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Dysbiosis in the oral environment may play a role in the etiopathogenesis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). This review aims to summarize the current knowledge about the association of oral microbiota with OSCC and to describe possible etiopathogenetic mechanisms involved in processes of OSCC development and progression. Association studies included in this review were designed as case–control/case studies, analyzing the bacteriome, mycobiome, and virome from saliva, oral rinses, oral mucosal swabs, or oral mucosal tissue samples (deep and superficial) and comparing the results in healthy individuals to those with OSCC and/or with premalignant lesions. Changes in relative abundances of specific bacteria (e.g., Porphyromonas gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Streptococcus sp.) and fungi (especially Candida sp.) were associated with OSCC. Viruses can also play a role; while the results of studies investigating the role of human papillomavirus in OSCC development are controversial, Epstein–Barr virus was positively correlated with OSCC. The oral microbiota has been linked to tumorigenesis through a variety of mechanisms, including the stimulation of cell proliferation, tumor invasiveness, angiogenesis, inhibition of cell apoptosis, induction of chronic inflammation, or production of oncometabolites. We also advocate for the necessity of performing a complex analysis of the microbiome in further studies and of standardizing the sampling procedures by establishing guidelines to support future meta-analyses.

Mucosal Associated Invariant T Cells in Cancer-Friend or Foe?

Mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are a population of unconventional T cells which can bridge the innate and adaptive immune systems. Well-described roles for MAIT cells include host protection against invading bacteria, fungi and viruses. Upon activation, MAIT cells become prolific effector cells, capable of producing a range of cytokines and lytic molecules. In addition to their anti-microbial role, MAIT cells have been implicated in immune responses to cancer, with opposing beneficial and pathogenic roles reported. On the one hand, MAIT cells can home to the site of the tumour in many human cancers and can produce anti-tumour molecules. On the other, MAIT cells can display defective phenotypes in certain cancers and produce pro-tumour molecules. In this review, we discuss the current literature on the diverse roles for MAIT cells in cancer, outlining their frequencies, functions and associations with N staging and prognosis. We also discuss potential mechanisms underpinning cancer-related alterations in MAIT cells and highlight therapeutic approaches to harness or target MAIT cells in cancer.

Cumulative Evidence for Association Between IL-8 -251T>A and IL-18 -607C>A Polymorphisms and Colorectal Cancer Susceptibility: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

PURPOSE

The correlation of IL-8 and IL-18 gene polymorphisms with colorectal cancer (CRC) was investigated by previous studies, though the results remained conflicting. Thus, the meta-analysis was performed to investigate the association of IL-8 -251T>A and IL-18 -607C>A polymorphisms with CRC risk.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of the PubMed, Web of Science, CNKI, SciELO, and Wanfang databases was performed up to February 20, 2020. The strength of the associations was calculated with odds ratios (ORs) and their corresponding 95% of confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

A total of 16 case-control studies including 13 studies with 3908 cases and 5005 controls on IL-8 -251T>A polymorphism and three studies with 396 cases and 560 controls on IL-18 -607C>A polymorphism were selected. Pooled data revealed that the IL-8 -251T>A and IL-18 -607C>A polymorphisms were not significantly associated with an increased risk of CRC in global population. When stratified by ethnicity, source of controls, sample size, and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE), there were still no significant association between IL-8 -251T>A polymorphism and risk of CRC.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results revealed that the IL-8 -251T>A and IL-18 -607C>A polymorphisms were not associated with an increased susceptibility to CRC. We strongly call for further studies with larger sample sizes and different ethnicities to confirm our findings.

Inflammation and Inflammasomes: Pros and Cons in Tumorigenesis

Over the past decade, it has been well established that tumorigenesis is affected by chronic inflammation. During this event, proinflammatory cytokines are produced by numerous types of cells, such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells, macrophages, and tumor cells, and are able to promote the initiation, progression, and metastasis of different types of cancer. When persistent inflammation occurs, activation of inflammasome complexes is initiated, leading to its assembly and further activation of caspase, production of proinflammatory cytokines, and pyroptosis induction. The function of this multiprotein complex is not only to reassure inflammation and to promote cell death, through caspase activity, but also has been identified to have significant contributions during tumorigenesis and cancer development. So far, many efforts have been made in order to extend the knowledge of inflammasome implications and how its components could be targeted as therapeutic agents. Additionally, microRNAs (miRNAs), evolutionary conserved noncoding molecules, have emerged as pivotal players during numerous biological events by regulating gene and protein expression. Therefore, dysregulations of miRNA expressions have been correlated with inflammation during tumor development. In this review, we aim to highlight the dual role of inflammasomes and proinflammatory cytokines during carcinogenesis paired with the distinguished effects of miRNAs upon inflammation cascades during tumor growth and progression.

HDGF enhances VEGF‑dependent angiogenesis and FGF‑2 is a VEGF‑independent angiogenic factor in non‑small cell lung cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for over 80% of all diagnosed lung cancer cases. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Most NSCLC cells overexpress vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) which plays a pivotal role in tumour angiogenesis. Anti-angiogenic therapies including VEGF-A neutralisation have significantly improved the response rates, progression-free survival and overall survival of patients with NSCLC. However, the median survival of these patients is shorter than 18 months, suggesting that NSCLC cells secrete VEGF-independent angiogenic factors, which remain unknown. We aimed to explore these factors in human NSCLC cell lines, A549, Lu99 and EBC-1 using serum-free culture, to which only EBC-1 cells could adapt. By mass spectrometry, we identified 1,007 proteins in the culture supernatant derived from EBC-1 cells. Among the identified proteins, interleukin-8 (IL-8), macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), galectin-1, midkine (MK), IL-18, galectin-3, VEGF-A, hepatoma-derived growth factor (HDGF), osteopontin (OPN), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and granulin (GRN) are known to be involved in angiogenesis. Tube formation, neutralisation and RNA interference assays revealed that VEGF-A and HDGF function as angiogenic factors in EBC-1 cells. To confirm whether VEGF-A and HDGF also regulate angiogenesis in the other NSCLC cell lines, we established a novel culture method. NSCLC cells were embedded in collagen gel and cultured three-dimensionally. Tube formation, neutralisation and RNA interference assays using the three-dimensional (3D) culture supernatant showed that VEGF-A and HDGF were not angiogenic factors in Lu99 cells. By gene microarray in EBC-1 and Lu99 cells, we identified 61 mRNAs expressed only in Lu99 cells. Among these mRNAs, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) and FGF-5 are known to be involved in angiogenesis. Tube formation and neutralisation assays clarified that FGF-2 functions as an angiogenic factor in Lu99 cells. These results indicate that HDGF enhances VEGF-dependent angiogenesis and that FGF-2 is a VEGF-independent angiogenic factor in human NSCLC cells.

IL-18R-dependent and independent pathways account for IL-18-enhanced antitumor ability of CAR-T cells

Interleukin-18 (IL-18) has been demonstrated to augment the antitumor capacity of chimeric antigen receptor-T cells (CAR-T) but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. Here we explored the effects and mechanisms of exogenous IL-18 on the antitumor response of CAR-T cells. IL-18 boosted the cytotoxicity of human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2)-specific CAR-T cells ex vivo and enhanced the antitumor efficacy of the CAR-T cells in immunodeficient mice, moreover, IL-18 improved the antitumor capacity of OVA-specific T cells in immunocompetent mice, indicating the universal enhancing function of IL-18 for adoptive cell therapy. To address the roles of IL-18 receptor (IL-18R) in the enhancing function, we evaluated the effects of IL-18R knockout (IL-18R^-/-) condition in immunocompetent host and CAR-T cells on the IL-18-enhanced antitumor activities. Interestingly, IL-18 persisted to improve the antitumor ability of IL-18R intact CAR-T cells in IL-18R^-/- mice. For IL-18R^-/- CAR-T cells, however, IL-18 still holds the enhancing ability to boost the antitumor efficacy in IL-18R^-/- mice, albeit the ex vivo tumor-killing ability was lower than that of IL-18R intact CAR-T cells, indicating that IL-18R-independent pathway is involved in the enhancement. Furthermore, tagged IL-18 binded to the membrane of IL-18R^-/- splenic and lymph node cells and IL-18R intact and IL-18R^-/- CAR-T cells showed distinct transcriptomic profiles when stimulated by IL-18. These data demonstrate that IL-18R-independent pathways contribute to functions of IL-18.

Increased interleukin-18 level contributes to the development and severity of ischemic stroke

Although interleukin-18 (IL-18) has been implicated in the pathophysiology of stroke, research findings concerning IL-18 level in stroke have been inconsistent. Thus, we performed a cross-sectional study in patients with first-episode ischemic stroke and then extracted relevant data from databases to validate our results. A total of 252 patients and 259 healthy subjects were recruited, and serum IL-18 level was evaluated in a cross-sectional study. Then, we extracted data and conducted a meta-analysis, including 2,928 patients and 3,739 controls to support our results. A 95% confidence interval for standardized mean difference (SMD) was calculated using a Z test. We found IL-18 was higher in stroke patients than in controls (2.39 ± 0.25 vs. 2.25 ± 0.28, F=8.60, p=0.004) and was negatively associated with the NIHSS scale (r = -0.14, p=0.028). A subsequent meta-analysis confirmed that IL-18 level was higher in stroke patients than in controls (SMD = 2.14, 95% CI = 1.54 ∼ 2.73, P< 0.001). IL-18 level increased with the severity of the stroke (p< 0.01). These findings revealed increased IL-18 level contributed to the development and severity of ischemic stroke, suggesting the potential of this biomarker to become an important reference for the early monitoring of ischemic stroke.

IL-1 Family Cytokine Regulation of Vascular Permeability and Angiogenesis

The IL-1 family of cytokines are well-known for their primary role in initiating inflammatory responses both in response to and acting as danger signals. It has long been established that IL-1 is capable of simultaneously regulating inflammation and angiogenesis, indeed one of IL-1's earliest names was haemopoeitn-1 due to its pro-angiogenic effects. Other IL-1 family cytokines are also known to have roles in mediating angiogenesis, either directly or indirectly via induction of proangiogenic factors such as VEGF. Of note, some of these family members appear to have directly opposing effects in different tissues and pathologies. Here we will review what is known about how the various IL-1 family members regulate vascular permeability and angiogenic function in a range of different tissues, and describe some of the mechanisms employed to achieve these effects.

The emerging roles of inflammasome-dependent cytokines in cancer development

In addition to the genomic alterations that occur in malignant cells, the immune system is increasingly appreciated as a critical axis that regulates the rise of neoplasms and the development of primary tumours and metastases. The interaction between inflammatory cell infiltrates and stromal cells in the tumour microenvironment is complex, with inflammation playing both pro- and anti-tumorigenic roles. Inflammasomes are intracellular multi-protein complexes that act as key signalling hubs of the innate immune system. They respond to cellular stress and trauma by promoting activation of caspase-1, a protease that induces a pro-inflammatory cell death mode termed pyroptosis along with the maturation and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Here, we will briefly introduce inflammasome biology with a focus on the dual roles of inflammasome-produced cytokines in cancer development. Despite emerging insight that inflammasomes may promote and suppress cancer development according to the tumour stage and the tumour microenvironment, much remains to be uncovered. Further exploration of inflammasome biology in tumorigenesis should enable the development of novel immunotherapies for cancer patients.

Characterization of an in vitro model to study the possible role of polyomavirus BK in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common male neoplasms in the Western world. Various risk factors may lead to carcinogenesis, including infectious agents such as polyomavirus BK (BKPyV), which infects the human renourinary tract, establishes latency, and encodes oncoproteins. Previous studies suggested that BKPyV plays a role in PCa pathogenesis. However, the unspecific tropism of BKPyV and the lack of in vitro models of BKPyV-infected prostate cells cast doubt on this hypothesis. The aim of the present study was to determine whether BKPyV could (a) infect normal and/or tumoral epithelial prostate cells and (b) affect their phenotype. Normal epithelial prostate RWPE-1 cells and PCa PC-3 cells were infected with BKPyV for 21 days. Cell proliferation, cytokine production, adhesion, invasion ability, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers were analyzed. Our results show that (a) RWPE-1 and PC-3 cells are both infectable with BKPyV, but the outcome of the infection varies, (b) cell proliferation and TNF-α production were increased in BKPyV-infected RWPE-1, but not in PC-3 cells, (c) adhesion to matrigel and invasion abilities were elevated in BKPyV-infected RWPE-1 cells, and (d) loss of E-cadherin and expression of vimentin occurred in both uninfected and infected RWPE-1 cells. In conclusion, BKPyV may change some features of the normal prostate cells but is not needed for maintaining the transformed phenotype in the PCa cells The fact that RWPE-1 cells exhibit some phenotype modifications related to EMT represents a limit of this in vitro model.

In ovo administration of Toll-like receptor ligands encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles impede tumor development in chickens infected with Marek's disease virus

One of the economically important diseases in the poultry industry is Marek's disease (MD) which is caused by Marek's disease virus (MDV). The use of current vaccines provides protection against clinical signs of MD in chickens. However, these vaccines do not prevent the transmission of MDV to susceptible hosts, hence they may promote the development of new virulent strains of MDV. This issue persuaded us to explore alternative approaches to control MD in chickens. Induction of innate responses at the early stage of life in the chicken may help to prevent or reduce MDV infection. Further, prophylactic use of Toll-like receptor ligands (TLR-Ls) has been shown to generate host immunity against infectious diseases. In this regard, encapsulation of TLR-Ls in Poly(d, l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) may further enhance host responses by controlled release of TLR-Ls for an extended period. Hence, in the current study, protective effects of encapsulated TLR4 and TLR21 ligands, LPS and CpG, respectively, were investigated against MD. Results indicated that administration of encapsulated CpG and LPS first at embryonic day (ED) 18, followed by post-hatch at 14 days-post infection (dpi) intramuscularly, diminished tumor incidence by 60% and 42.8%, respectively at 21dpi compared to the MDV only group. In addition, analysis of cytokine gene profiles of interferon (IFN)-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-18 and IL-10 in spleen and bursa of Fabricius at different time points suggests that TLR-Ls possibly triggered host responses through the expression of IL-1β and IL-18 to reduce tumor formation. However, further studies are needed to explore the role of these pro-inflammatory cytokines and other influencing elements like lymphocytes in the hindrance of tumor development by TLR-Ls treatment in chickens.

Interleukin-18 Amplifies Macrophage Polarization and Morphological Alteration, Leading to Excessive Angiogenesis

M2 macrophage (Mφ) promotes pathologic angiogenesis through a release of pro-angiogenic mediators or the direct cell–cell interaction with endothelium in the micromilieu of several chronic inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis and cancer, where interleukin (IL)-18 also contributes to excessive angiogenesis. However, the detailed mechanism remains unclear. The aim of this study is to investigate the mechanism by which M2 Mφs in the micromilieu containing IL-18 induce excessive angiogenesis in the in vitro experimental model using mouse Mφ-like cell line, RAW264.7 cells, and mouse endothelial cell line, b.End5 cells. We discovered that IL-18 acts synergistically with IL-10 to amplify the production of Mφ-derived mediators like osteopontin (OPN) and thrombin, yielding thrombin-cleaved form of OPN generation, which acts through integrins α4/α9, thereby augmenting M2 polarization of Mφ with characteristics of increasing surface CD163 expression in association with morphological alteration. Furthermore, the results of visualizing temporal behavior and morphological alteration of Mφs during angiogenesis demonstrated that M2-like Mφs induced excessive angiogenesis through the direct cell–cell interaction with endothelial cells, possibly mediated by CD163.

CXCL5 as an autocrine or paracrine cytokine is associated with proliferation and migration of hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells

C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CXCL5) is a CXC-type chemokine that is a crucial inflammatory mediator and a powerful attractant for granulocytic immune cells. Increasing evidence has indicated that CXCL5 is involved in the tumorigenesis of various malignancies. The present investigation demonstrated that CXCL5 was expressed in both hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells and liver stellate LX-2 cells, and CXCL5's receptor C-X-C chemokine receptor type 2 (CXCR2) was expressed in HepG2 cells by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), western blotting and ELISA assays. Cell counting kit-8, colony formation and Transwell assays revealed that exogenous CXCL5 expression efficiently promoted proliferation, colony formation and migration of HepG2 cells. To explore the autocrine and paracrine roles of CXCL5 in the oncogenic potential of HepG2 cells, HepG2 cells overexpressing CXCL5 and LX-2 cells overexpressing CXCL5 were successfully constructed by gene transfection. Similarly, overexpression of CXCL5 in HepG2 also enhanced proliferation, colony formation and migration of HepG2 cells. Furthermore, the condition medium of LX-2 cells overexpressing CXCL5 affected the proliferation and migration of HepG2 cells. RT-PCR and western blotting assays were also conducted to explore whether overexpression of CXCL5 in HepG2 modulated the expression of genes. The results revealed that overexpression of CXCL5 regulated the expression of several genes, including N-myc downregulated gene 3,w B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), Bcl-2-associated X protein, P53, vascular endothelial growth factor, interleukin (IL)-18, IL-1β and cystathionine-γ-lyase. In conclusion, the present findings indicate that CXCL5/CXCR2 axis contributes to the oncogenic potential of hepatoblastoma via autocrine or paracrine pathways by regulating expression of genes associated with the progression of carcinoma.

TGFBR2-dependent alterations of exosomal cargo and functions in DNA mismatch repair-deficient HCT116 colorectal cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancers (CRCs) that lack DNA mismatch repair function exhibit the microsatellite unstable (MSI) phenotype and are characterized by the accumulation of frameshift mutations at short repetitive DNA sequences (microsatellites). These tumors recurrently show inactivating frameshift mutations in the tumor suppressor Transforming Growth Factor Beta Receptor Type 2 (TGFBR2) thereby abrogating downstream signaling. How altered TGFBR2 signaling affects exosome-mediated communication between MSI tumor cells and their environment has not been resolved. Here, we report on molecular alterations of exosomes shed by MSI cells and the biological response evoked in recipient cells.

METHODS

Exosomes were isolated and characterized by electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking, and western blot analysis. TGFBR2-dependent effects on the cargo and functions of exosomes were studied in a MSI CRC model cell line enabling reconstituted and inducible TGFBR2 expression and signaling. Microsatellite frameshift mutations in exosomal and cellular DNA were examined by PCR-based DNA fragment analysis and exosomal protein profiles were identified by mass spectrometry. Uptake of fluorescent-labeled exosomes by hepatoma recipient cells was monitored by confocal microscopy. TGFBR2-dependent exosomal effects on secreted cytokine levels of recipient cells were analyzed by Luminex technology and ELISA.

RESULTS

Frameshift mutation patterns in microsatellite stretches of TGFBR2 and other MSI target genes were found to be reflected in the cargo of MSI CRC-derived exosomes. At the proteome level, reconstituted TGFBR2 expression and signaling uncovered two protein subsets exclusively occurring in exosomes derived from TGFBR2-deficient (14 proteins) or TGFBR2-proficient (five proteins) MSI donor cells. Uptake of these exosomes by recipient cells caused increased secretion (2-6 fold) of specific cytokines (Interleukin-4, Stem Cell Factor, Platelet-derived Growth Factor-B), depending on the TGFBR2 expression status of the tumor cell.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that the coding MSI phenotype of DNA mismatch repair-deficient CRC cells is maintained in their exosomal DNA. Moreover, we uncovered that a recurrent MSI tumor driver mutation like TGFBR2 can reprogram the protein content of MSI cell-derived exosomes and in turn modulate the cytokine secretion profile of recipient cells. Apart from its diagnostic potential, these TGFBR2-dependent exosomal molecular and proteomic signatures might help to understand the signaling routes used by MSI tumors. Fricke et al. uncovered coding microsatellite instability-associated mutations of colorectal tumor driver genes like TGFBR2 in MSI tumor cellderived exosomes. Depending on the TGFBR2 expression status of their donor cells, shed exosomes show distinct proteomic signatures and promote altered cytokine secretion profiles in recipient cells.

Tumour biomarkers: homeostasis as a novel prognostic indicator

The term 'personalized medicine' refers to a medical procedure that consists in the grouping of patients based on their predicted individual response to therapy or risk of disease. In oncologic patients, a 'tailored' therapeutic approach may potentially improve their survival and well-being by not only reducing the tumour, but also enhancing therapeutic response and minimizing the adverse effects. Diagnostic tests are often used to select appropriate and optimal therapies that rely both on patient genome and other molecular/cellular analysis. Several studies have shown that lifestyle and environmental factors can influence the epigenome and that epigenetic events may be involved in carcinogenesis. Thus, in addition to traditional biomarkers, epigenetic factors are raising considerable interest, because they could potentially be used as an excellent tool for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. In this review, we summarize the role of conventional cancer genetic biomarkers and their association with epigenomics. Furthermore, we will focus on the so-called 'homeostatic biomarkers' that result from the physiological response to cancer, emphasizing the concept that an altered 'new' homeostasis influence not only tumour environment, but also the whole organism.

Role of Some Predominant Host Immunomodulators' Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in Severity of Hepatitis B Virus and Hepatitis C Virus Infection

Hepatitis B and C infections can be either acute or chronic. The chronic infection can culminate in liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Influence of the host genetic makeup on conversion of acute to chronic infection, development of cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma is an interesting area of research. Variability in different immune system genes may account for such differences in the outcome of infection. This article discusses single nucleotide polymorphisms in different host immunomodulator genes that have been frequently reported to influence the outcome of infection and severity of disease. The genetic variability could be utilized for the prediction of disease outcome and treatment responses.

Progranulin and granulin-like protein as novel VEGF-independent angiogenic factors derived from human mesothelioma cells

Malignant mesothelioma is an aggressive tumor arising from the mesothelial cells of serous membranes and is associated with tumor angiogenesis, which is a prerequisite for tumor progression. Vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) including VEGF-A have a crucial role in tumor angiogenesis. However, bevacizumab, a monoclonal antibody to VEGF-A, has recently been reported not to improve the progression-free survival of patients with malignant mesothelioma. Cell culture supernatant contains extracellular components such as serum, which can mask the existence of unknown cell-derived factors in the supernatant and make it difficult to detect the factors by subsequent protein analysis. We tried using serum-free culture for human mesothelioma cell lines, NCI-H28, NCI-H2452 and NCI-H2052, and only NCI-H2052 cells adapted to serum-free culture. We found that serum-free culture supernatant derived from NCI-H2052 cells induces the formation of capillary-like tube structures (tube formation) in three-dimensional culture, in which endothelial cells sandwiched between two layers of collagen or embedded in collagen are incubated with various angiogenic inducers. However, neither neutralization of VEGF-A nor RNA interference of VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) suppressed the supernatant-induced tube formation. Using mass spectrometry, we identified a total of 399 proteins in the supernatant, among which interleukin-8 (IL-8), growth-regulated α-protein, midkine, IL-18, IL-6, hepatoma-derived growth factor, clusterin and granulin (GRN), also known as progranulin (PGRN), were included as a candidate protein inducing angiogenesis. Neutralizing assays and RNA interference showed that PGRN, but not the above seven candidate proteins, caused the supernatant-induced tube formation. We also found that NCI-H28 and NCI-H2452 cells express PGRN. Furthermore, we demonstrate that not only PGRN but also GRN-like protein have an important role in the supernatant-induced tube formation. Thus, mesothelioma-derived GRNs induce VEGF-independent angiogenesis.

Diabetes-associated dysregulated cytokines and cancer

Epidemiological data demonstrate that patients with diabetes have an augmented risk of developing various types of cancers, accompanied by higher mortality. A number of mechanisms for this connection have been hypothesized, such as insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, and increased inflammatory processes. Apart from these potential mechanisms, several diabetes-associated dysregulated cytokines might be implicated in the link between diabetes and cancer. In fact, some inflammatory cytokines, e.g. TNF-α, IL-6 and leptin, have been revealed to play important roles in both initiation and progression of tumor. Here, we depict the role of these cytokines in key events of carcinogenesis and cancer development, including their capability to induce oxidative stress, inflammation, their participation in epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), angiogenesis, and metastasis. Finally, we will also highlight the existing knowledge in terms of the involvement of these cytokines in different cancer types and comment on potential significances for future clinical applications.

The activation of pyrin domain-containing-3 inflammasome depends on lipopolysaccharide from Porphyromonas gingivalis and extracellular adenosine triphosphate in cultured oral epithelial cells

Background

Gingival epithelial cells are the major population of the gingival tissue, acting as the front-line defense against microbial intrusion and regulating the homeostasis of the periodontal tissue in health and disease via NLR family pyrin domain-containing-3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, which recognizes pathogen- and danger-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs and DAMPs). The aim of this study was to determine whether the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome depends on infection with the periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis), or stimulation with P. gingivalis lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and/or extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Methods

An oral epithelial cell line was treated with P. gingivalis, P. gingivalis LPS and ATP. The gene and protein expression of NLRP3 inflammasome components were quantified by real time RT-PCR and immunoblots. Production of IL-1β and IL-18 was measured by ELISA.

Results

There was no increase in NLRP3 inflammasome gene expression after P. gingivalis infection unless pre-stimulated by ATP. Obvious increases of NLRP3 inflammasome gene expression was observed after P. gingivalis LPS stimulation, even pre-stimulated by ATP at 2 h.

Conclusions

The findings indicate that the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome does not rely on P. gingivalis infection, unless stimulated by P. gingivalis LPS and/or extracellular ATP, suggesting diverse signaling pathways are involved in the host immune response.

Sulforaphane inhibits multiple inflammasomes through an Nrf2-independent mechanism

The inflammasomes are intracellular complexes that have an important role in cytosolic innate immune sensing and pathogen defense. Inflammasome sensors detect a diversity of intracellular microbial ligands and endogenous danger signals and activate caspase-1, thus initiating maturation and release of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β and interleukin-18. These events, although crucial to the innate immune response, have also been linked to the pathology of several inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. The natural isothiocyanate sulforaphane, present in broccoli sprouts and available as a dietary supplement, has gained attention for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and chemopreventive properties. We discovered that sulforaphane inhibits caspase-1 autoproteolytic activation and interleukin-1β maturation and secretion downstream of the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor leucine-rich repeat proteins NLRP1 and NLRP3, NLR family apoptosis inhibitory protein 5/NLR family caspase-1 recruitment domain-containing protein 4 (NAIP5/NLRC4), and absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasome receptors. Sulforaphane does not inhibit the inflammasome by direct modification of active caspase-1 and its mechanism is not dependent on protein degradation by the proteasome or de novo protein synthesis. Furthermore, sulforaphane-mediated inhibition of the inflammasomes is independent of the transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like factor 2 (Nrf2) and the antioxidant response-element pathway, to which many of the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of sulforaphane have been attributed. Sulforaphane was also found to inhibit cell recruitment to the peritoneum and interleukin-1β secretion in an in vivo peritonitis model of acute gout and to reverse NLRP1-mediated murine resistance to Bacillus anthracis spore infection. These findings demonstrate that sulforaphane inhibits the inflammasomes through a novel mechanism and contributes to our understanding of the beneficial effects of sulforaphane.

IL-18 Is Involved in Eosinophil-Mediated Tumoricidal Activity against a Colon Carcinoma Cell Line by Upregulating LFA-1 and ICAM-1

Eosinophils are multifunctional leukocytes that are involved in innate and adaptive immune responses through the expression of various receptors and mediators. Previously, we showed that human eosinophils and T cells shared cytotoxic activities against tumor cells that involved the γ-δ TCR and cell-cell contact. In this study, we investigated the molecules involved in eosinophil-tumor cell interactions. Given the role of IL-18 in cell adhesion and in protecting against colon cancer, we evaluated its role in eosinophil-mediated cytotoxicity against Colo-205, a human colon carcinoma cell line. We found that human eosinophils exerted dose- and time-dependent tumoricidal activity against Colo-205 cells. Neutralization of IL-18 significantly reduced eosinophil-mediated Colo-205 apoptosis and inhibited cell-cell adhesion. Moreover, addition of rIL-18 led to upregulation of CD11a and ICAM-1 adhesion molecules, which were involved in the contact between eosinophils and Colo-205 cells. Our results indicated that IL-18 was involved in the eosinophil-mediated death of Colo-205 by facilitating contact between effector and target cells. These data underscored the involvement of an additional mediator in eosinophil-mediated antitumor cytotoxicity. Our findings support existing evidence that eosinophils could play a beneficial role in the context of colon cancer.

Global Epidemiology of Campylobacter Infection

Campylobacter jejuni infection is one of the most widespread infectious diseases of the last century. The incidence and prevalence of campylobacteriosis have increased in both developed and developing countries over the last 10 years. The dramatic increase in North America, Europe, and Australia is alarming, and data from parts of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East indicate that campylobacteriosis is endemic in these areas, especially in children. In addition to C. jejuni, there is increasing recognition of the clinical importance of emerging Campylobacter species, including Campylobacter concisus and Campylobacter ureolyticus. Poultry is a major reservoir and source of transmission of campylobacteriosis to humans. Other risk factors include consumption of animal products and water, contact with animals, and international travel. Strategic implementation of multifaceted biocontrol measures to reduce the transmission of this group of pathogens is paramount for public health. Overall, campylobacteriosis is still one of the most important infectious diseases that is likely to challenge global health in the years to come. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the global epidemiology, transmission, and clinical relevance of Campylobacter infection.

The role of the mediators of inflammation in cancer development

Epigenetic disorders such as point mutations in cellular tumor suppressor genes, DNA methylation and post-translational modifications are needed to transformation of normal cells into cancer cells. These events result in alterations in critical pathways responsible for maintaining the normal cellular homeostasis, triggering to an inflammatory response which can lead the development of cancer. The inflammatory response is a universal defense mechanism activated in response to an injury tissue, of any nature, that involves both innate and adaptive immune responses, through the collective action of a variety of soluble mediators. Many inflammatory signaling pathways are activated in several types of cancer, linking chronic inflammation to tumorigenesis process. Thus, Inflammatory responses play decisive roles at different stages of tumor development, including initiation, promotion, growth, invasion, and metastasis, affecting also the immune surveillance. Immune cells that infiltrate tumors engage in an extensive and dynamic crosstalk with cancer cells, and some of the molecular events that mediate this dialog have been revealed. A range of inflammation mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, free radicals, prostaglandins, growth and transcription factors, microRNAs, and enzymes as, cyclooxygenase and matrix metalloproteinase, collectively acts to create a favorable microenvironment for the development of tumors. In this review are presented the main mediators of the inflammatory response and discussed the likely mechanisms through which, they interact with each other to create a condition favorable to development of cancer.

Correlation between IL-18 and familial aggregation of hepatocellular carcinoma6

AIM: To investigate the correlation between serum level of cytokine interleukin (IL)-18 and familial aggregation of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

METHODS: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect serum levels of IL-18 in 108 pairs of carcinoma-free members from HCC high-incidence families and those from carcinoma-free families.

RESULTS: Serum levels of cytokine IL-18 were significantly lower in carcinoma-free members from HCC high-incidence families than in those from carcinoma-free families (P < 0.05), irregardless of sex, HBsAg infection and age. In carcinoma-free members from HCC high-incidence families, the levels of IL-18 were significantly different between first-degree relatives and the second-degree relatives (t = -2.713, P = 0.032). The level of IL-18 declined with the increase in the number of HCC patients in HCC high-incidence families (Z= -2.09, P = 0.037).

CONCLUSION: IL-18 might have a close relationship to the familial aggregation of HCC, and IL-18 may be a protective factor against HCC.

Annexin A2: its molecular regulation and cellular expression in cancer development

Annexin A2 (ANXA2) orchestrates multiple biologic processes and clinical associations, especially in cancer progression. The structure of ANXA2 affects its cellular localization and function. However, posttranslational modification and protease-mediated N-terminal cleavage also play critical roles in regulating ANXA2. ANXA2 expression levels vary among different types of cancers. With some cancers, ANXA2 can be used for the detection and diagnosis of cancer and for monitoring cancer progression. ANXA2 is also required for drug-resistance. This review discusses the feasibility of ANXA2 which is active in cancer development and can be a therapeutic target in cancer management.