Enzyme-based autophagy in anti-neoplastic management: From molecular mechanisms to clinical therapeutics

The multiple roles of autophagy in uveal melanoma and the microenvironment

PURPOSE

Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common primary malignant intraocular tumor in adults, and effective clinical treatment strategies are still lacking. Autophagy is a lysosome-dependent degradation system that can encapsulate abnormal proteins, damaged organelles. However, dysfunctional autophagy has multiple types and plays a complex role in tumorigenicity depending on many factors, such as tumor stage, microenvironment, signaling pathway activation, and application of autophagic drugs.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted to analyze the role of autophagy in UM, as well as describing the development of autophagic drugs and the link between autophagy and the tumor microenvironment.

RESULTS

In this review, we summarize current research advances regarding the types of autophagy, the mechanisms of autophagy, the application of autophagy inhibitors or agonists, autophagy and the tumor microenvironment. Finally, we also discuss the relationship between autophagy and UM.

CONCLUSION

Understanding the molecular mechanisms of how autophagy differentially affects tumor progression may help to design better therapeutic regimens to prevent and treat UM.

Mitochondrial dysfunction route as a possible biomarker and therapy target for human cancer

Mitochondria are vital organelles found within living cells and have signalling, biosynthetic, and bioenergetic functions. Mitochondria play a crucial role in metabolic reprogramming, which is a characteristic of cancer cells and allows them to assure a steady supply of proteins, nucleotides, and lipids to enable rapid proliferation and development. Their dysregulated activities have been associated with the growth and metastasis of different kinds of human cancer, particularly ovarian carcinoma. In this review, we briefly demonstrated the modified mitochondrial function in cancer, including mutations in mtDNA, reactive oxygen species production, dynamics, apoptosis of cells, autophagy, and calcium excess to maintain cancer genesis, progression, and metastasis. Furthermore, the mitochondrial dysfunction pathway for some genomic, proteomic, and metabolomics modifications in ovarian cancer has been studied. Additionally, ovarian cancer has been linked to targeted therapies and biomarkers found through various alteration processes underlying mitochondrial dysfunction, notably targeting reactive oxygen species, metabolites, rewind metabolic pathways, and chemo-resistant ovarian carcinoma cells.

The Function of Autophagy in the Initiation, and Development of Breast Cancer

Autophagy is a significant catabolic procedure that increases in stressful conditions. This mechanism is mostly triggered after damage to the organelles, the presence of unnatural proteins, and nutrient recycling in reaction to these stresses. One of the key points in this article is that cleaning and preserving damaged organelles and accumulated molecules through autophagy in normal cells helps prevent cancer. Since dysfunction of autophagy is associated with various diseases, including cancer, it has a dual function in tumor suppression and expansion. It has newly become clear that the regulation of autophagy can be used for the treatment of breast cancer, which has a promising effect of increasing the efficiency of anticancer treatment in a tissue- and cell-type-specific manner by affecting the fundamental molecular mechanisms. Regulation of autophagy and its function in tumorigenesis is a vital part of modern anticancer techniques. This study discusses the current advances related to the mechanisms that describe essential modulators of autophagy involved in the metastasis of cancers and the development of new breast cancer treatments.

The exploration of mitochondrial-related features helps to reveal the prognosis and immunotherapy methods of colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Cancer cell survival, proliferation, and metabolism are all intertwined with mitochondria. However, a complete description of how the features of mitochondria relate to the tumor microenvironment (TME) and immunological landscape of colorectal cancer (CRC) has yet to be made. We performed subgroup analysis on CRC patient data obtained from the databases using non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) clustering. Construct a prognostic model using the mitochondrial-related gene (MRG) risk score, and then compare it to other models for accuracy. Comprehensive analyses of the risk score, in conjunction with the TME and immune landscape, were performed, and the relationship between the model and different types of cell death, radiation and chemotherapy, and drug resistance was investigated. Results from immunohistochemistry and single-cell sequencing were utilized to verify the model genes, and a drug sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate possible therapeutic medicines. The pan-cancer analysis is utilized to further investigate the role of genes in a wider range of malignancies.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We found that CRC patients based on MRG were divided into two groups with significant differences in survival outcomes and TME between groups. The predictive power of the risk score was further shown by building a prognostic model and testing it extensively in both internal and external cohorts. Multiple immune therapeutic responses and the expression of immunological checkpoints demonstrate that the risk score is connected to immunotherapy success. The correlation analysis of the risk score provide more ideas and guidance for prognostic models in clinical treatment.

CONCLUSION

The TME, immune cell infiltration, and responsiveness to immunotherapy in CRC were all thoroughly evaluated on the basis of MRG features. The comparative validation of multiple queues and models combined with clinical data ensures the effectiveness and clinical practicality of MRG features. Our studies help clinicians create individualized treatment programs for individuals with cancer.

Construction of an Escherichia coli cell factory for de novo synthesis of tyrosol through semi-rational design based on phenylpyruvate decarboxylase ARO10 engineering

Tyrosol (2-(4-hydroxyphenyl) ethanol) is extensively used in the pharmaceutical industry as an important natural product from plants. In previous research, we constructed a recombinant Escherichia coli strain capable of de novo synthesis of tyrosol by integrating the phenylpyruvate decarboxylase ARO10 derived from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nevertheless, the insufficient catalytic efficiency of ARO10 required the insertion of multiple gene copies into the genome to attain enhanced tyrosol production. In this study, we constructed a mutation library of ARO10 based on a computer-aided semi-rational design strategy and developed a high-throughput screening method for selecting high-yield tyrosol mutants by introducing the heterologous hydroxylase complex HpaBC. Through multiple rounds of screening and site-saturation mutagenesis, we ultimately identified the two optimal ARO10 mutants, ARO10D331V and ARO10D331C, which respectively achieved a tyrosol titer of 2.02 g/L and 2.04 g/L in shake flasks, both representing more than 50 % improvement compared to the wild-type. Our study demonstrates the great potential of computer-based semi-rational enzyme design strategy in metabolic engineering. The high-throughput screening method for target compound derivative possesses a certain level of generality. Ultimately, we obtained promising mutants capable of achieving industrial-scale production of tyrosol, which also lays a solid foundation for the efficient synthesis of tyrosol derivatives.

Overcoming the structure deficiency of nanodrug coated with tannic acid shell through phenolic hydroxyl protection strategy for Alzheimer's disease combination treatment

Tannic acid (TA) shell is of great interest for nanodrug design due to its versatile application such as antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory. However, evidence is emerging that TA air oxidation in storage stage and unfavorable interactions of TA with electrolyte or protein in drug delivery could bring great challenge for the structure stability of nanodrug. In this study, a smart TA shell of nanomicelles was constructed through phenolic hydroxyl protection strategy, and the antioxidant capacity of nanomicelles maintain stable after 24 days storage. The phenolic hydroxyl protective tannic acid micelles (PHPTA micelles) show excellent performance for combination delivery of azoramide (Azo), dantrolene (Dan), Trazodone (Tra) in accelerated senescence (SAMP8) mice. This study may pave the way for the fabrication of nanodrugs with stable and smart TA shell for oxidative stress relevant diseases.

Lignin/Puerarin Nanoparticle-Incorporated Hydrogel Improves Angiogenesis through Puerarin-Induced Autophagy Activation

Purpose

Puerarin is the main isoflavone extracted from Radix Puerariae lobata (Willd.) and exerts a strong protective effect on endothelial cells. This isoflavone also exerts proven angiogenic effects; however, the potential underlying mechanism has not been fully explored. Here in this work, we aimed to determine the proangiogenesis effect of a puerarin-attached lignin nanoparticle-incorporated hydrogel and explore the underlying mechanism.

Materials and Methods

Puerarin-attached lignin nanoparticles were fabricated and mixed with the GelMA hydrogel. After the hydrogel was characterized, the angiogenic effect was evaluated in a mouse hind-limb ischemia model. To further explore the mechanism of angiogenesis, human endothelial cell line EA.hy926 was exposure to different concentrations of puerarin. Wound healing assays and tube formation assays were used to investigate the effects of puerarin on cell migration and angiogenesis. qPCR and Western blotting were performed to determine the changes in the levels of angiogenesis indicators, autophagy indicators and PPARβ/δ. 3-MA was used to assess the role of autophagy in the puerarin-mediated angiogenesis effect in vivo and in vitro.

Results

The hydrogel significantly improved blood flow restoration in mice with hind-limb ischemia. This effect was mainly due to puerarin-mediated increases in the angiogenic capacity of endothelial cells and the promotion of autophagy activation. A potential underlying mechanism might be that puerarin-mediated activation of autophagy could induce an increase in PPARβ/δ expression.

Conclusion

The puerarin-attached lignin nanoparticle-incorporated hydrogel effectively alleviated blood perfusion in mice with hind-limb ischemia. Puerarin has a prominent proangiogenic effect. The potential mechanisms might be that puerarin-mediated autophagy activation and increase in PPARβ/δ.

Spinal Reirradiation-Mediated Myelopathy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Reirradiation of the spine is carried out in 42% of patients who do not respond to treatment or have recurrent pain. However, there are few studies and data on the effect of reirradiation of the spine and the occurrence of acute and chronic side-effects caused by reirradiation, such as myelopathy, in these patients. This meta-analysis aimed to determine the safe dose in terms of biological effective dose (BED), cumulative dose and dose interval between BED1 and BED2 to decrease or prevent myelopathy and pain control in patients undergoing radiation therapy in the spinal cord. A search was carried out using EMBASE, MEDLINE, PUBMED, Google Scholar, Cochrane Collaboration library electronic databases, Magiran, and SID from 2000 to 2022 to recognise qualified studies. In total, 17 primary studies were applied to estimate the pooled effect size. The random effects model showed that the pooled BED in the first stage, the BED in the second stage and the cumulative BED1 and BED2 were estimated at 77.63, 58.35 and 115.34 Gy, respectively. Studies reported on dose interval. The results of a random effects model showed that the pooled interval was estimated at 13.86 months. The meta-analysis revealed that using appropriate BED1 and/or BED2 in a safe interval between the first and second phases of treatment can have an influential role in preventing or reducing the effects of myelopathy and regional control pain in spinal reirradiation.

Immobilisation of Cellobiose Dehydrogenase and Laccase on Chitosan Particles as a Multi-Enzymatic System for the Synthesis of Lactobionic Acid

Lactobionic acid (LBA) is a bioactive compound that has become increasingly popular in medicine in recent years due to its unique properties. This chemical can be formed via the enzymatic oxidation of lactose using fungal oxidoreductive enzymes. This study aimed to intensify the synthesis of LBA using immobilised enzymes (cellobiose dehydrogenase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium (PchCDH) and laccase from Cerrena unicolor (CuLAC)) on chitosan microspheres. We used three different crosslinking agents: genipin, glutaraldehyde, and polyethyleneimine to activate the chitosan. The FTIR and CellDrop techniques were used to characterise the activated microspheres. Quantitative (HPLC) and qualitative (TLC) methods were used to determine the obtained LBA. The results show that the type of activator used influences the efficiency of the binding of the enzyme to the matrix. Furthermore, the amount of LBA formed depends on the type of system used. The use of a system in which one of the enzymes is immobilised on a PEI-activated carrier (PchCDH) and the other is free (CuLAC) proved to be the most optimal, as it yielded almost 100% conversion of lactose to lactobionic acid. Summarising the data obtained the following: lactobionic acid immobilised on chitosan microspheres has great potential for medical applications.

Autophagy as a self-digestion signal in human cancers: Regulation by microRNAs in affecting carcinogenesis and therapy response

Autophagy is defined as a "self-digestion" signal, and it is a cell death mechanism its primary function is degrading toxic agents and aged organelles to ensure homeostasis in cells. The basic leve ls of autophagy are found in cells, and when its levels exceed to standard threshold, cell death induction is observed. Autophagy dysregulation in cancer has been well-documented, and regulation of this pathway by epigenetic factors, especially microRNAs (miRNAs), is interesting and noteworthy. miRNAs are considered short endogenous RNAs that do not encode functional proteins, and they are essential regulators of cell death pathways such as apoptosis, necroptosis, and autophagy. Accumulating data has revealed miRNA dysregulation (upregulation or downregulation) during tumor progression, and their therapeutic manipulation provides new insight into cancer therapy. miRNA/autophagy axis in human cancers has been investigated an exciting point is the dual function of both autophagy and miRNAs as oncogenic and onco-suppressor factors. The stimulation of pro-survival autophagy by miRNAs can increase the survival rate of tumor cells and mediates cancer metastasis via EMT inductionFurthermore, pro-death autophagy induction by miRNAs has a negative impact on the viability of tumor cells and decreases their survival rate. The miRNA/autophagy axis functions beyond regulating the growth and invasion of tumor cells, and they can also affect drug resistance and radio-resistance. These subjects are covered in the current review regarding the new updates provided by recent experiments.

Possible mechanism of metabolic and drug resistance with L-asparaginase therapy in childhood leukaemia

L-asparaginase, which hydrolyzes asparagine into aspartic acid and ammonia, is frequently used to treat acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children. When combined with other chemotherapy drugs, the event-free survival rate is 90%. Due to immunogenicity and drug resistance, however, not all patients benefit from it, restricting the use of L-asparaginase therapy in other haematological cancers. To solve the problem of immunogenicity, several L-ASNase variants have emerged, such as Erwinia-ASNase and PEG-ASNase. However, even when Erwinia-ASNase is used as a substitute for E. coli-ASNase or PEG-ASNase, allergic reactions occur in 3%-33% of patients. All of these factors contributed to the development of novel L-ASNases. Additionally, L-ASNase resistance mechanisms, such as the methylation status of ASNS promoters and activation of autophagy, have further emphasized the importance of personalized treatment for paediatric haematological neoplasms. In this review, we discussed the metabolic effects of L-ASNase, mechanisms of drug resistance, applications in non-ALL leukaemia, and the development of novel L-ASNase.

ER stress and inflammation crosstalk in obesity

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) governs the proper folding of polypeptides and proteins through various chaperones and enzymes residing within the ER organelle. Perturbation in the ER folding process ensues when overwhelmed protein folding exceeds the ER handling capacity, leading to the accumulation of misfolded/unfolded proteins in the ER lumen-a state being referred to as ER stress. In turn, ER stress induces a gamut of signaling cascades, termed as the "unfolded protein response" (UPR) that reinstates the ER homeostasis through a panel of gene expression modulation. This type of UPR is usually deemed "adaptive UPR." However, persistent or unresolved ER stress hyperactivates UPR response, which ultimately, triggers cell death and inflammatory pathways, termed as "maladaptive/terminal UPR." A plethora of evidence indicates that crosstalks between ER stress (maladaptive UPR) and inflammation precipitate obesity pathogenesis. In this regard, the acquisition of the mechanisms linking ER stress to inflammation in obesity might unveil potential remedies to tackle this pathological condition. Herein, we aim to elucidate key mechanisms of ER stress-induced inflammation in the context of obesity and summarize potential therapeutic strategies in the management of obesity through maneuvering ER stress and ER stress-associated inflammation.

Diagnostic Potential of Autophagy-5 Protein, Apolipoprotein B-48, and Oxidative Stress Markers in Serum of Patients with Early-Stage Ischemic Stroke

OBJECTIVE

Strokes are among the leading causes of death worldwide and have different characteristics. Different physiopathological mechanisms characterize the numerous subtypes of ischemic stroke (IS). In this study, we investigated the relationship between serum levels of autophagy-5 protein, apolipoprotein B-48, and oxidative stress markers in patients with ischemic stroke.

METHODS

For this study, 100 participants were recruited, of which 50 were patients with IS and 50 were healthy individuals. We conducted a case-control study at Imam Reza Hospital from March 2019 to April 2020. Serum levels of ATG5, apo B-48, and oxidative stress markers were determined in both groups. Our Receiver Operating Characteristic Analysis evaluated the additional diagnostic value of these factors in both groups.

RESULTS

Diabetes, smoking, age, sex, alcohol consumption, weight, and height did not differ significantly between the 2 groups (P > 0.05). However, the 2 groups had significant differences in hypertension and body mass index (P < 0.05). Fifty-four percent (27 patients) of patients with IS had an ischemic stroke in large vessels, while 46% (23 patients) had an ischemic stroke in small vessels. Serum levels of ATG5, apo B-48, and oxidative stress markers were higher in the case group than in the control group (P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with IS, serum levels of ATG5, apoB-48, malonaldehyde, total oxidative stress, and total antioxidant capacity can be used as novel biomarkers to predict or treat the disease.

Mitophagy in cardiovascular diseases: molecular mechanisms, pathogenesis, and treatment

With the growing prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD), there is an urgent need to explore non-conventional therapeutic measures to alleviate the burden of CVD on global healthcare. Mitochondrial injury plays a cardinal role in the pathogenesis of CVD. Mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy are essential machineries that govern mitochondrial health in cardiomyocytes in physiological and pathophysiological settings. However, with the onset and progression of CVD, homeostasis of mitophagy is disturbed through largely unknown pathological mechanisms, causing mitochondrial damage and ultimately cardiomyocyte death. In this review we decipher the dual regulatory role of mitophagy in CVD pathogenesis, summarize controversies in mitophagy, and highlight recently identified compounds capable of modulating mitophagy. We share our perspectives on future mitophagy research directions in the context of CVD.

ER stress and UPR in Alzheimer's disease: mechanisms, pathogenesis, treatments

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder characterized by gradual loss of memory and cognitive function, which constitutes a heavy burden on the healthcare system globally. Current therapeutics to interfere with the underlying disease process in AD is still under development. Although many efforts have centered on the toxic forms of Aβ to effectively tackle AD, considering the unsatisfactory results so far it is vital to examine other targets and therapeutic approaches as well. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress refers to the build-up of unfolded or misfolded proteins within the ER, thus, perturbing the ER and cellular homeostasis. Emerging evidence indicates that ER stress contributes to the onset and development of AD. A thorough elucidation of ER stress machinery in AD pathology may help to open up new therapeutic avenues in the management of this devastating condition to relieve the cognitive dementia symptoms. Herein, we aim at deciphering the unique role of ER stress in AD pathogenesis, reviewing key findings, and existing controversy in an attempt to summarize plausible therapeutic interventions in the management of AD pathophysiology.

Multifunctional Magnetic Nanoparticles for MRI-guided Co-delivery of Erlotinib and L-Asparaginase to Ovarian Cancer

AIM(S)

The use of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in biomedical applications has been wildly opted due to their unique properties. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of aptamer-armed MNPs in ovarian cancer treatment and as T2 weighted MRI contrast agent.

METHODS

Here, we designed MNPs loaded with erlotinib (ERL/SPION-Val-PEG) and conjugated them with anti-mucin16 (MUC16) aptamer to introduce new image-guided nanoparticles (NPs) for targeted drug delivery as well as non-invasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents. Also, the combination of our nanosystem (NS) along with L-Asparaginase (L-ASPN) led to synergistic effects in terms of reducing cell viability in ovarian cancer cells, which could suggest a novel combination therapy.

RESULTS

The mean size of our NS was about 63.4 ± 3.4 nm evaluated by DLS analysis and its morphology was confirmed using TEM. Moreover, the functional groups, as well as magnetic properties of our NS, were examined by FT-IR and VSM tests, respectively. The loading efficacy of erlotinib on MNPs was about 80% and its release reached 70.85% over 7 days in the pH value of 5.4. The MR images and flow cytometry results revealed that the cellular uptake of ERL/SPION-Val-PEG-MUC16 NPs in cells with MUC16 overexpression was considerably higher than unarmed NPs. In addition, T2-weight MR images of ovarian cancer-bearing mice indicated significant signal intensity changes at the tumor site 4 h after intravenous injection compared to the non-target MNPs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest ERL/SPION-Val-PEG NPs as an image-guided co-drug delivery system for ovarian cancer.

Zinc oxide nanoparticles-impregnated chitosan surfaces for covalent immobilization of trypsin: Stability & kinetic studies

Trypsin (Try, EC. 3.4.21.4) was effectively immobilized on the surface of glutaraldehyde(GA)-activated ZnO/Chitosan nanocomposite through covalent attachment via Schiff-base linkages. Size, structure, surface morphology, & percentage elemental composition of the prepared ZnO nanoparticles and chitosan-coated ZnO nanocomposite were studied by UV-Visible spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray diffraction analysis (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Microanalysis (EDAX) techniques. Optimal immobilization conditions (incubation time (16 h), enzyme concentration (1.8 mg/ml), and pH (7.8)) were investigated to obtain the maximum expressed activity of the immobilized trypsin. Immobilized & solubilized trypsin exhibited the optimum catalytic activity at pH 8.5, 60 °C, and pH 7.8, 45 °C respectively. Kinetic parameters (K_m, V_max) of immobilized (27.12 μM, 8.82 μM/min) & free trypsin (25.76 μM, 4.16 μM/min) were determined, indicating that efficiency of trypsin improves after immobilization. Immobilized trypsin preserved 67% of initial activity at 50 °C during 2 h of incubation & sustained nearly 50% of catalytic activity until the 9th repeated cycle of utilization. Moreover, immobilized trypsin retained 50% of enzymatic activity after 90 days of storage at 4 °C. Hence, the current findings suggest that ZnO/Chitosan-GA-Trypsin would be a promising biocatalyst for large-scale biotechnological applications.

A review on targeting tumor microenvironment: The main paradigm shift in the mAb-based immunotherapy of solid tumors

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) as biological macromolecules have been remarked the large and growing pipline of the pharmaceutical market and also the most promising tool in modern medicine for cancer therapy. These therapeutic entities, which consist of whole mAbs, armed mAbs (i.e., antibody-toxin conjugates, antibody-drug conjugates, and antibody-radionuclide conjugates), and antibody fragments, mostly target tumor cells. However, due to intrinsic heterogeneity of cancer diseases, tumor cells targeting mAb have been encountered with difficulties in their unpredictable efficacy as well as variability in remission and durable clinical benefits among cancer patients. To address these pitfalls, the area has undergone two major evolutions with the intent of minimizing anti-drug responses and addressing limitations experienced with tumor cell-targeted therapies. As a novel hallmark of cancer, the tumor microenvironment (TME) is becoming the great importance of attention to develop innovative strategies based on therapeutic mAbs. Here, we underscore innovative strategies targeting TME by mAbs which destroy tumor cells indirectly through targeting vasculature system (e.g., anti-angiogenesis), immune system modulation (i.e., stimulation, suppression, and depletion), the targeting and blocking of stroma-based growth signals (e.g., cancer-associated fibroblasts), and targeting cancer stem cells, as well as, their effector mechanisms, clinical uses, and relevant mechanisms of resistance.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction Pathway Alterations Offer Potential Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets for Ovarian Cancer

The mitochondrion is a very versatile organelle that participates in some important cancer-associated biological processes, including energy metabolism, oxidative stress, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutation, cell apoptosis, mitochondria-nuclear communication, dynamics, autophagy, calcium overload, immunity, and drug resistance in ovarian cancer. Multiomics studies have found that mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and apoptosis signaling pathways act in human ovarian cancer, which demonstrates that mitochondria play critical roles in ovarian cancer. Many molecular targeted drugs have been developed against mitochondrial dysfunction pathways in ovarian cancer, including olive leaf extract, nilotinib, salinomycin, Sambucus nigra agglutinin, tigecycline, and eupatilin. This review article focuses on the underlying biological roles of mitochondrial dysfunction in ovarian cancer progression based on omics data, potential molecular relationship between mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, and future perspectives of promising biomarkers and therapeutic targets based on the mitochondrial dysfunction pathway for ovarian cancer.

Biomimetic lipidic nanovectors for effective asparaginase supramolecule delivery

Effectiveness of enzyme therapy is limited by enzyme drawbacks such as short half-life, low bioavailability and high immunogenicity. We loaded asparaginase (Aase) into hydroxypropyl- or sulfonbutylether-beta cyclodextrin to form supramolecular amphiphilic molecules by self-assembly followed by entrapment inside the cores of two biomimetic lipidic nanovectors (AS-XLNs). Supramolecular structure was simulated by molecular docking. AS-XLNs maintained superior activity through isolating Aase from external environment due to docking with cyclodextrin and coating with biomimetic membrane. Fluorescent probes and computational simulations were used to reveal possible interactions between serum albumin/trypsin and Aase/nanovector membrane components which were partly responsible for enhanced bioavailability and bioactivity of AS-XLNs compared to Aase. AS-XLNs significantly increased cytotoxicity against pulmonary tumor cells due to synergistic effects of Aase and nanovector membrane components (killing tumor cells through apoptosis induced by asparagine depletion and autophagy inhibition or via targets such as vascular endothelial growth factor A, alpha-amylase, p-selectin or androgen receptor).

ER stress in obesity pathogenesis and management

Given the unprecedented global pandemic of obesity, a better understanding of the etiology of adiposity will be necessary to ensure effective management of obesity and related complications. Among the various potential factors contributing to obesity, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress refers to a state of excessive protein unfolding or misfolding that is commonly found in metabolic diseases including diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance (IR), and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, although its role in obesogenesis remains controversial. ER stress is thought to drive adiposity by dampening energy expenditure, making ER stress a likely therapeutic target for the management of obesity. We summarize the role of ER stress and the ER stress response in the onset and development of obesity, and discuss the underlying mechanisms involved with a view to identifying novel therapeutic strategies for obesity prevention and management.

Recent advances and trends in nanoparticles based photothermal and photodynamic therapy

Light-mediated therapies, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) have been exploited as minimally invasive techniques for ablation of various tumors., Both modalities may eradicate tumors with minimal side effects to normal tissues and organs. Moreover, developments of light-mediated approaches using nanoparticles (NPs) and photosensitizer (PS) as diagnostic and therapeutic agents may have a crucial role in achieving successful cancer treatment. In recent years, novel nanoplatforms and strategies have been investigated to boost the therapeutic effect.. In this regard, gold, iron oxide, graphene oxide nanoparticles and hybrid nanocomposites have attracted attention.. Moreover, the combination of these materials with PS, in the form of hybrid NPs, reduces in vitro and in vivo normal tissue cytotoxicity, improves their solubility property in the biological environment and enhances the therapeutic effects. In this review, we look into the basic principles of PTT and PDT with their strengths and limitations to treat cancers. We also will discuss light-based nanoparticles and their PTT and PDT applications in the preclinical and clinical translation. Also, recent advances and trends in this field will be discussed along with the clinical challenges of PTT and PDT.

Ajugol enhances TFEB-mediated lysosome biogenesis and lipophagy to alleviate non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Lipophagy is the autophagic degradation of lipid droplets. Dysregulated lipophagy has been implicated in the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Ajugol is an active alkaloid isolated from the root of Rehmannia glutinosa which is commonly used to treat various inflammatory and metabolic diseases. This study aimed to investigate the effect of ajugol on alleviating hepatic steatosis and sought to determine whether its potential mechanism via the key lysosome-mediated process of lipophagy. Our findings showed that ajugol significantly improved high-fat diet-induced hepatic steatosis in mice and inhibited palmitate-induced lipid accumulation in hepatocytes. Further analysis found that hepatic steatosis promoted the expression of LC3-II, an autophagosome marker, but led to autophagic flux blockade due to a lack of lysosomes. Ajugol also enhanced lysosomal biogenesis and promoted the fusion of autophagosome and lysosome to improve impaired autophagic flux and hepatosteatosis. Mechanistically, ajugol inactivated mammalian target of rapamycin and induced nuclear translocation of the transcription factor EB (TFEB), an essential regulator of lysosomal biogenesis. siRNA-mediated knockdown of TFEB significantly abrogated ajugol-induced lysosomal biogenesis as well as autophagosome-lysosome fusion and lipophagy. We conclude that lysosomal deficit is a critical mediator of hepatic steatosis, and ajugol may alleviate NAFLD via promoting the TFEB-mediated autophagy-lysosomal pathway and lipophagy.

ER Stress in Cardiometabolic Diseases: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutics

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) hosts linear polypeptides and fosters natural folding of proteins through ER-residing chaperones and enzymes. Failure of the ER to align and compose proper protein architecture leads to accumulation of misfolded/unfolded proteins in the ER lumen, which disturbs ER homeostasis to provoke ER stress. Presence of ER stress initiates the cytoprotective unfolded protein response (UPR) to restore ER homeostasis or instigates a rather maladaptive UPR to promote cell death. Although a wide array of cellular processes such as persistent autophagy, dysregulated mitophagy, and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines may contribute to the onset and progression of cardiometabolic diseases, it is well perceived that ER stress also evokes the onset and development of cardiometabolic diseases, particularly cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), diabetes mellitus, obesity, and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Meanwhile, these pathological conditions further aggravate ER stress, creating a rather vicious cycle. Here in this review, we aimed at summarizing and updating the available information on ER stress in CVDs, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and CKD, hoping to offer novel insights for the management of these cardiometabolic comorbidities through regulation of ER stress.

Smart chemistry of enzyme immobilization using various support matrices - A review

The surface chemistry, pendent functional entities, and ease in tunability of various materials play a central role in properly coordinating with enzymes for immobilization purposes. Due to the interplay between the new wave of support matrices and enzymes, the development of robust biocatalytic constructs via protein engineering expands the practical scope and tunable catalysis functions. The concept of stabilization via functional entities manipulation, the surface that comprises functional groups, such as thiol, aldehyde, carboxylic, amine, and epoxy have been the important driving force for immobilizing purposes. Enzyme immobilization using multi-functional supports has become a powerful norm and presents noteworthy characteristics, such as selectivity, specificity, stability, resistivity, induce activity, reaction efficacy, multi-usability, high catalytic turnover, optimal yield, ease in recovery, and cost-effectiveness. There is a plethora of literature on traditional immobilization approaches, e.g., intramolecular chemical (covalent) attachment, adsorption, encapsulation, entrapment, and cross-linking. However, the existing literature is lacking state-of-the-art smart chemistry of immobilization. This review is a focused attempt to cover the literature gap of surface functional entities that interplay between support materials at large and enzyme of interest, in particular, to tailor robust biocatalysts to fulfill the growing and contemporary needs of several industrial sectors.

Targeting autophagy in ischemic stroke: From molecular mechanisms to clinical therapeutics

Stroke constitutes the second leading cause of death and a major cause of disability worldwide. Stroke is normally classified as either ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke (HS) although 87% of cases belong to ischemic nature. Approximately 700,000 individuals suffer an ischemic stroke (IS) in the US each year. Recent evidence has denoted a rather pivotal role for defective macroautophagy/autophagy in the pathogenesis of IS. Cellular response to stroke includes autophagy as an adaptive mechanism that alleviates cellular stresses by removing long-lived or damaged organelles, protein aggregates, and surplus cellular components via the autophagosome-lysosomal degradation process. In this context, autophagy functions as an essential cellular process to maintain cellular homeostasis and organismal survival. However, unchecked or excessive induction of autophagy has been perceived to be detrimental and its contribution to neuronal cell death remains largely unknown. In this review, we will summarize the role of autophagy in IS, and discuss potential strategies, particularly, employment of natural compounds for IS treatment through manipulation of autophagy.

Ferritinophagy and ferroptosis in the management of metabolic diseases

Ferroptosis is a form of regulated cell death modality associated with disturbed iron-homeostasis and unrestricted lipid peroxidation. Ample evidence has depicted an essential role for ferroptosis as either the cause or consequence for human diseases, denoting the likely therapeutic promises for targeting ferroptosis in the preservation of human health. Ferritinophagy, a selective form of autophagy, contributes to the initiation of ferroptosis through degradation of ferritin, which triggers labile iron overload (IO), lipid peroxidation, membrane damage, and cell death. In this review, we will delineate the role of ferritinophagy in ferroptosis, and its underlying regulatory mechanisms, to unveil the therapeutic value of ferritinophagy as a target in the combat of ferroptosis to manage metabolic diseases.

Targeting autophagy in neurodegenerative diseases: From molecular mechanisms to clinical therapeutics

Many neurodegenerative diseases are associated with pathological aggregation of proteins in neurons. Autophagy is a natural self-cannibalization process that can act as a powerful mechanism to remove aged and damaged organelles as well as protein aggregates. It has been shown that promoting autophagy can attenuate or delay neurodegeneration by removing protein aggregates. In this paper, we will review the role of autophagy in Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's Disease (PD), and Huntington's Disease (HD) and discuss opportunities and challenges of targeting autophagy as a potential therapeutic avenue for treatment of these common neurodegenerative diseases.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress and unfolded protein response in cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), such as ischaemic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, atherosclerosis, hypertension, stroke and heart failure, are among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Although specific CVDs and the associated cardiometabolic abnormalities have distinct pathophysiological and clinical manifestations, they often share common traits, including disruption of proteostasis resulting in accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER proteostasis is governed by the unfolded protein response (UPR), a signalling pathway that adjusts the protein-folding capacity of the cell to sustain the cell's secretory function. When the adaptive UPR fails to preserve ER homeostasis, a maladaptive or terminal UPR is engaged, leading to the disruption of ER integrity and to apoptosis. ER stress functions as a double-edged sword, with long-term ER stress resulting in cellular defects causing disturbed cardiovascular function. In this Review, we discuss the distinct roles of the UPR and ER stress response as both causes and consequences of CVD. We also summarize the latest advances in our understanding of the importance of the UPR and ER stress in the pathogenesis of CVD and discuss potential therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring ER proteostasis in CVDs.

Role of Dietary Amino Acids and Nutrient Sensing System in Pregnancy Associated Disorders

Defective implantation is related to pregnancy-associated disorders such as spontaneous miscarriage, intrauterine fetal growth restriction and others. Several factors proclaimed to be involved such as physiological, nutritional, environmental and managemental that leads to cause oxidative stress. Overloading of free radicals promotes oxidative stress, and the internal body system could not combat its ability to encounter the damaging effects and subsequently leading to pregnancy-related disorders. During pregnancy, essential amino acids display important role for optimum fetal growth and other necessary functions for continuing fruitful pregnancy. In this context, dietary amino acids have received much attention regarding the nutritional concerns during pregnancy. Arginine, glutamine, tryptophan and taurine play a crucial role in fetal growth, development and survival while ornithine and proline are important players for the regulation of gene expression, protein synthesis and angiogenesis. Moreover, amino acids also stimulate the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway which plays a central role in the synthesis of proteins in placenta, uterus and fetus. This review article explores the significances of dietary amino acids in pregnancy development, regulation of nutrient-sensing pathways such as mTOR, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling pathway (IIS) and 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) which exhibit important role in reproduction and its related problems. In addition, the antioxidant function of dietary amino acids against oxidative stress triggering pregnancy disorders and their possible outcomes will also be enlightened. Dietary supplementation of amino acids during pregnancy could help mitigate reproductive disorders and thereby improving fertility in animals as well as humans.

Mitophagy Receptors and Mediators: Therapeutic Targets in the Management of Cardiovascular Ageing

Mitophagy serves as a cardinal regulator in the maintenance of mitochondrial integrity, function, and cardiovascular homeostasis, through the fine control and governance of cellular metabolism, ATP production, redox balance, and mitochondrial quality and quantity control. As a unique form of selective autophagy, mitophagy specifically recognizes and engulfs long-lived or damaged (depolarized) mitochondria through formation of the double-membraned intracellular organelles - mitophagosomes, ultimately resulting in lysosomal degradation. Levels of mitophagy are reported to be altered in pathological settings including cardiovascular diseases and biological ageing although the precise nature of mitophagy change in ageing and ageing-associated cardiovascular deterioration remains poorly defined. Ample clinical and experimental evidence has depicted a convincing tie between cardiovascular ageing and altered mitophagy. In particular, ageing perturbs multiple enigmatic various signal machineries governing mitophagy, mitochondrial quality, and mitochondrial function, contributing to ageing-elicited anomalies in the cardiovascular system. This review will update novel regulatory mechanisms of mitophagy especially in the perspective of advanced ageing, and discuss how mitophagy dysregulation may be linked to cardiovascular abnormalities in ageing. We hope to pave the way for development of new therapeutic strategies against the growing health and socieconomical issue of cardiovascular ageing through targeting mitophagy.