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Wu Y, Zhu J, Liu H, Liu H. Licochalcone A improves the cognitive ability of mice by regulating T- and B-cell proliferation. Aging (Albany NY) 2021; 13:8895-8915. [PMID: 33714945 PMCID: PMC8034954 DOI: 10.18632/aging.202704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Licochalcone A (LA), a flavonoid found in licorice, has anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. Here, we explored the effect of injecting LA into the tail vein of middle-aged C57BL/6 mice on their cognitive ability as measured by the Morris water maze (MWM) test and cerebral blood flow (CBF). The related mechanisms were assessed via RNA-seq, and T (CD3e+) and B (CD45R/B220+) cells in the spleen and whole blood were quantified via flow cytometry. LA improved the cognitive ability, according to the MWM test results, and upregulated the CBF level of treated mice. The RNA-seq results indicate that LA affected the interleukin (IL)-17 signaling pathway, which is related to T- and B-cell proliferation, and the flow cytometry data suggest that LA promoted T- and B-cell proliferation in the spleen and whole blood. We also performed immune reconstruction via a tail vein injection of lymphocytes into B-NDG (NOD-PrkdcscidIl2rgtm1/Bcge) mice before treating them with LA. We tested cognitive ability by subjecting these animals to new object recognition tests and quantified the splenic and whole blood T and B cells. Cognitive ability improved after immune reconstruction and LA treatment, and LA promoted T- and B-cell proliferation in the spleen and whole blood. This study demonstrates that LA, by activating the IL-17 signaling pathway, promotes T- and B-cell proliferation in the spleen and whole blood of mice and improves cognitive ability. Thus, LA may have immune-modulating therapeutic potential for improving cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yating Wu
- Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Phytomedicine Resource and Utilization of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
| | - Jianbo Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Phytomedicine Resource and Utilization of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
| | - Haifeng Liu
- China Colored-Cotton (Group) Co., Ltd., Urumqi 830016, Xinjiang, China
| | - Hailiang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Xinjiang Phytomedicine Resource and Utilization of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China.,Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200123, China
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Wu L, Han D, Jiang J, Xie X, Zhao X, Ke T, Zhao W, Liu L, Zhao W. Co-transplantation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and monocytes in the brain stem to repair the facial nerve axotomy. Eur J Histochem 2020; 64. [PMID: 32705858 PMCID: PMC7388641 DOI: 10.4081/ejh.2020.3136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
After the facial nerve axotomy (FNA), the distal end of the axon would gradually decay and disappear. Accumulated evidence shows that transplantation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) reveals potential in the treatment of nervous system diseases or injuries. This study is aimed at investigating the therapeutic effects of co-transplantation of BMSCs and monocytes in FNA. We found that co-culture significantly elevated the CD4+/CD8+ ratio and CD4+ CD25+ T cell proportion compared with monocytes transplantation, and enhanced the differentiation of BMSCs into neurons. After the cell transplantation, the lowest apoptosis in the facial nerve nucleus was found in the co-transplantation group 2 (BMSCs:monocytes= 1:30). Moreover, the lowest expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the highest expression levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines were observed in the co-transplantation group 2 (BMSCs: monocytes= 1:30). The highest expression levels of protein in the JAK/STAT6 pathway and the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis were found in the co-transplantation group 2. BMSC/monocyte co-transplantation significantly improves the microenvironment in the facial nerve nucleus in FNA rats; therefore these findings suggest that it could promote the anti-/pro-inflammatory balance shift towards the anti-inflammatory microenvironment, alleviating survival conditions for BMSCs, regulating BMSC the chemotaxis homing, differentiation, and the section of BMSCs, and finally reducing the neuronal apoptosis. These findings might provide essential evidence for the in-hospital treatment of FNA with co-transplantation of BMSCs and monocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wu
- Department of Medical Imaging, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming.
| | - Dan Han
- Department of Medical Imaging, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming.
| | - Jie Jiang
- Department of Medical Imaging, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming.
| | - Xiaojie Xie
- Department of Medical Imaging, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650032, Yunnan, China.
| | - Xunran Zhao
- Department of Medical Imaging, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming.
| | - Tengfei Ke
- Department of Medical Imaging, Third Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming.
| | - Wen Zhao
- Department of Medical Imaging, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming.
| | - Liu Liu
- Department of Plastic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming.
| | - Wei Zhao
- Department of Medical Imaging, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming.
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CD4+ T cell expression of the IL-10 receptor is necessary for facial motoneuron survival after axotomy. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:121. [PMID: 32303238 PMCID: PMC7164177 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01772-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background After peripheral nerve transection, facial motoneuron (FMN) survival depends on an intact CD4+ T cell population and a central source of interleukin-10 (IL-10). However, it has not been determined previously whether CD4+ T cells participate in the central neuroprotective IL-10 cascade after facial nerve axotomy (FNA). Methods Immunohistochemical labeling of CD4+ T cells, pontine vasculature, and central microglia was used to determine whether CD4+ T cells cross the blood-brain barrier and enter the facial motor nucleus (FMNuc) after FNA. The importance of IL-10 signaling in CD4+ T cells was assessed by performing adoptive transfer of IL-10 receptor beta (IL-10RB)-deficient CD4+ T cells into immunodeficient mice prior to injury. Histology and qPCR were utilized to determine the impact of IL-10RB-deficient T cells on FMN survival and central gene expression after FNA. Flow cytometry was used to determine whether IL-10 signaling in T cells was necessary for their differentiation into neuroprotective subsets. Results CD4+ T cells were capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier and associating with reactive microglial nodules in the axotomized FMNuc. Full induction of central IL-10R gene expression after FNA was dependent on CD4+ T cells, regardless of their own IL-10R signaling capability. Surprisingly, CD4+ T cells lacking IL-10RB were incapable of mediating neuroprotection after axotomy and promoted increased central expression of genes associated with microglial activation, antigen presentation, T cell co-stimulation, and complement deposition. There was reduced differentiation of IL-10RB-deficient CD4+ T cells into regulatory CD4+ T cells in vitro. Conclusions These findings support the interdependence of IL-10- and CD4+ T cell-mediated mechanisms of neuroprotection after axotomy. CD4+ T cells may potentiate central responsiveness to IL-10, while IL-10 signaling within CD4+ T cells is necessary for their ability to rescue axotomized motoneuron survival. We propose that loss of IL-10 signaling in CD4+ T cells promotes non-neuroprotective autoimmunity after FNA.
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Launay PS, Reboussin E, Liang H, Kessal K, Godefroy D, Rostene W, Sahel JA, Baudouin C, Melik Parsadaniantz S, Reaux Le Goazigo A. Ocular inflammation induces trigeminal pain, peripheral and central neuroinflammatory mechanisms. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 88:16-28. [PMID: 26747211 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocular surface diseases are among the most frequent ocular pathologies, with prevalence ranging from 20% of the general population. In addition, ocular pain following corneal injury is frequently observed in clinic. The aim of the study was to characterize the peripheral and central neuroinflammatory process in the trigeminal pathways in response to cornea alteration induced by chronic topical instillations of 0.2% benzalkonium chloride (BAC) in male C57BL/6J mice. In vitro BAC induced neurotoxicity and increases neuronal (FOS, ATF3) and pro-inflammatory (IL-6) markers in primary mouse trigeminal ganglion culture. BAC-treated mice exhibited 7days after the treatment reduced aqueous tear production and increased inflammatory cell infiltration in the cornea. Hypertonic saline-evoked eye wipe behavior was enhanced in BAC-treated animals that exhibited increased FOS, ATF3 and Iba1 immunoreactivity in the trigeminal ganglion. Ocular inflammation is associated with a significant increase in IL-6 and TNF-α mRNA expression in the trigeminal ganglion. We reported a strong increase in FOS and Iba1 positive cells in particular in the sensory trigeminal complex at the ipsilateral interpolaris/caudalis (Vi/Vc) transition and Vc/upper cervical cord (Vc/C1) regions. In addition, activated microglial cells were tightly wrapped around activated FOS neurons in both regions and phosphorylated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase was markedly enhanced specifically in microglial cells during ocular inflammation. Similar data were obtained in the facial motor nucleus. These neuroanatomical data correlated with the increase in mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-6, CCL2) and neuronal (FOS and ATF3) markers. Interestingly, the suppression of corneal inflammation 10days following the end of BAC treatment resulted in a marked attenuation of peripheral and central changes observed in pathological conditions. This study provides the first demonstration that corneal inflammation induces activation of neurons and microglial p38 MAPK pathway within sensory trigeminal complex. These results suggest that this altered activity in intracellular signaling caused by ocular inflammation might play a priming role in the central sensitization of ocular related brainstem circuits, which represents a significant factor in ocular pain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Serge Launay
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France
| | - Elodie Reboussin
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France
| | - Hong Liang
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France; Centre Hospitalier National d'Ophtalmologie des Quinze-Vingts, Paris F-75012, France
| | - Karima Kessal
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France
| | - David Godefroy
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France
| | - William Rostene
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France
| | - Jose-Alain Sahel
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France; Centre Hospitalier National d'Ophtalmologie des Quinze-Vingts, Paris F-75012, France
| | - Christophe Baudouin
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France; Centre Hospitalier National d'Ophtalmologie des Quinze-Vingts, Paris F-75012, France
| | - Stéphane Melik Parsadaniantz
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France
| | - Annabelle Reaux Le Goazigo
- INSERM, U968, Paris, F-75012, France; Sorbonne Universités, Université UPMC, Paris 06, UM 80, Institut de la Vision, 75012 Paris, France; CNRS, UMR 7210, Paris F-75012, France.
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Miremami JD, Talauliker PM, Harrison JL, Lifshitz J. Neuropathology in sensory, but not motor, brainstem nuclei of the rat whisker circuit after diffuse brain injury. Somatosens Mot Res 2014; 31:127-35. [DOI: 10.3109/08990220.2014.897602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Almolda B, Villacampa N, Manders P, Hidalgo J, Campbell IL, González B, Castellano B. Effects of astrocyte-targeted production of interleukin-6 in the mouse on the host response to nerve injury. Glia 2014; 62:1142-61. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Almolda
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
| | - Nàdia Villacampa
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
| | - Peter Manders
- School of Molecular Bioscience; University of Sydney; Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Juan Hidalgo
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
| | - Iain L. Campbell
- School of Molecular Bioscience; University of Sydney; Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Berta González
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
| | - Bernardo Castellano
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Neuroscience; Autonomous University of Barcelona; Bellaterra 08193 Spain
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Huang Z, Ha G, Petitto J. Reversal of Neuronal Atrophy: Role of Cellular Immunity in Neuroplasticity and Aging. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 2. [PMID: 25505790 DOI: 10.4172/2329-6895.1000170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that neuroimmunological changes in the brain can modify intrinsic brain processes that are involved in regulating neuroplasticity. Increasing evidence suggests that in some forms of motor neuron injury, many neurons do not die, but reside in an atrophic state for an extended period of time. In mice, facial motor neurons in the brain undergo a protracted period of degeneration or atrophy following resection of their peripheral axons. Reinjuring the proximal nerve stump of the chronically resected facial nerve stimulates a robust reversal of motor neuron atrophy which results in marked increases in both the number and size of injured motor neurons in the facial motor nucleus. In this brief review, we describe research from our lab which indicates that the reversal of atrophy in this injury model is dependent on normal cellular immunity. The role of T cells in this unique form of neuroplasticity following injury and in brain aging, are discussed. The potential role of yet undiscover intrinsic actions of recombination activating genes in the brain are considered. Further research using the facial nerve reinjury model could identify molecular signals involved in neuroplasticity, and lead to new ways to stimulate neuroregenerative processes in neurotrauma and other forms of brain insult and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Huang
- Departments of Neuroscience and Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Grace Ha
- Departments of Neuroscience and Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - John Petitto
- Departments of Neuroscience and Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Huang Z, Ha GK, Petitto JM. 5. T cell immunity and neuroplasticity. RECENT RESEARCH DEVELOPMENTS IN NEUROSCIENCE 2013; 4:109-119. [PMID: 25599095 PMCID: PMC4295499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The proneuronal effects of T cells that impact the brain occur from both T cells trafficking into the brain, and from signals in the periphery (e.g., cytokine release and regulation). Recent data indicates that neuroimmunological changes in the brain can modify intrinsic brain processes that are involved in regulating neuroplasticity (e.g., T-cell/microglial interactions, neurotrophins, neurogenesis). We describe: 1) work from our lab and others showing that injury-induced loss of neuronal phenotype and reversal of motor neuron atrophy are associated with normal T cell immunity, and; 2) research indicating that these and other neuroimmunological processes may be generalizable to mechanisms of neuroplasticity involved in cognitive and emotional behavior. These findings are discussed in relation to our lab's working hypothesis, that T cell immunosenesence may contribute to alterations in brain neuroplasticity related to aging. Greater understanding of the role of adaptive T cell immunity on neuroplasticity could have important clinical implications for developing novel treatment strategies for neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's) and brain injury (e.g., stroke, trauma).
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Meola D, Huang Z, Ha GK, Petitto JM. Loss of Neuronal Phenotype and Neurodegeneration: Effects of T Lymphocytes and Brain Interleukin-2. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; Suppl 10. [PMID: 24058743 DOI: 10.4172/2161-0460.s10-003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Loss of neuronal phenotype and reversal of neuronal atrophy have been demonstrated in different models of central nervous system (CNS) injury. These processes may be generalizable to different types of brain neurons and circuitry. The idea that some injured neurons may lose their phenotype and/or atrophy with the potential to rejuvenate is a remarkable and potentially promising form of neuronal plasticity that is not well understood. In this paper, we present some of our laboratory's basic neuroimmunology research showing that peripheral T cells entering the CNS, and brain-derived interleukin-2 (IL-2), play significant roles in these intriguing processes. Our findings suggest, for example, that T cell immunosenesence could be involved in related processes of brain aging and contribute to neurodegenerative disease. Neuroimmunological approaches may provide new insights into yet undiscovered factors and brain mechanisms that regulate changes in neuronal integrity associated with aging and disease. Such findings could have important implications for discovering more effective strategies for treating patients with neurotrauma and neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease).
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Meola
- Departments of Psychiatry, Neuroscience, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Gemechu JM, Bentivoglio M. T Cell Recruitment in the Brain during Normal Aging. Front Cell Neurosci 2012; 6:38. [PMID: 23049498 PMCID: PMC3446775 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2012.00038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 08/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging-related changes in the peripheral immune response are well documented, but less is known about changes of the immune response in the central nervous system. Reactivity of microglia, effectors of the brain innate immunity, is known to increase in the aged brain, but little attention has been hitherto devoted to T cell recruitment. Data in rodents point to a gradual enhancement of T cell homing to the brain in the steady state since the middle age. Experimental findings also point to enhanced transmigration of lymphocytes as part of an amplified response of the aging brain to acute exogenous inflammatory insults. Thus, available data support the capacity of the aged brain to mount a robust immune response, in contrast with peripheral immunity decline, and indicate that such central response involves recruitment of lymphocytes. These findings open many questions, including blood-brain barrier molecular regulation and infiltrated T cell subtypes during normal aging. The crosstalk between T cells, glia, and neurons also remains to be clarified in the aged brain parenchyma. This intercellular dialogue and related signaling could be relevant for both protection of the aged brain and its vulnerability to neurological disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jickssa M Gemechu
- Department of Neurological Sciences (DSNNMM), University of Verona Verona, Italy
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Harada S, Suzuki SO, Seki Y, Nakamura S, Iwaki T. Differential activation of proapoptotic molecules between mouse and rat models of distal motor trigeminal denervation. J Oral Pathol Med 2012; 41:354-60. [PMID: 22084907 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0714.2011.01109.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We previously developed a rat trigeminal motor neuron axotomy model involving masseter and temporal muscle resection to study pathological changes of the central nucleus after peripheral nerve injury caused by oral surgery. Because motor neurons are reported to be more vulnerable to axotomy in mice than rats, we compared the degeneration process of the trigeminal motor nucleus in the rat model with a similar mouse model. METHODS We removed masseter and temporal muscles of adult mice or rats. Animals were sacrificed at 3, 7, 14, 28, 42, and 56 days post-operation, and the trigeminal motor nuclei were histologically analyzed. RESULTS Size reduction, but no neuronal loss, was seen in the trigeminal motor nuclei in both mice and rats. Time-dependent Noxa expression, starting at 1 week post-operation (wpo), was seen in the mouse model. By 8 wpo, mice expressed a higher level of Noxa than rats. Additionally, we noted persistent expression of cleaved caspase-3 in mice but not in rats. Conversely, apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), which executes DNA fragmentation in the nucleus, was not translocated to the nucleus in either model. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate differential activation of motor neuron apoptosis pathways after axotomy in mice and rats. Lack of activation of caspase-independent pathways and distal end denervation in our model might be related to the survival of motor neurons after axonal injury. These findings could be relevant to future neuroprotective strategies for peripheral nerve injury caused by oral surgeries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiori Harada
- Department of Neuropathology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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