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Dong Q, Ptáček LJ, Fu YH. Mutant β 1-adrenergic receptor improves REM sleep and ameliorates tau accumulation in a mouse model of tauopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2221686120. [PMID: 37014857 PMCID: PMC10104526 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2221686120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Sleep is essential for our well-being, and chronic sleep deprivation has unfavorable health consequences. We recently demonstrated that two familial natural short sleep (FNSS) mutations, DEC2-P384R and Npsr1-Y206H, are strong genetic modifiers of tauopathy in PS19 mice, a model of tauopathy. To gain more insight into how FNSS variants modify the tau phenotype, we tested the effect of another FNSS gene variant, Adrb1-A187V, by crossing mice with this mutation onto the PS19 background. We found that the Adrb1-A187V mutation helped restore rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and alleviated tau aggregation in a sleep-wake center, the locus coeruleus (LC), in PS19 mice. We found that ADRB1+ neurons in the central amygdala (CeA) sent projections to the LC, and stimulating CeAADRB1+ neuron activity increased REM sleep. Furthermore, the mutant Adrb1 attenuated tau spreading from the CeA to the LC. Our findings suggest that the Adrb1-A187V mutation protects against tauopathy by both mitigating tau accumulation and attenuating tau spreading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Dong
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA94143
| | - Louis J. Ptáček
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA94143
- Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA94143
- Weill Institute for Neuroscience, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA94143
- Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience,University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA94143
| | - Ying-Hui Fu
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA94143
- Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA94143
- Weill Institute for Neuroscience, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA94143
- Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience,University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA94143
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2
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Ressler KJ, Berretta S, Bolshakov VY, Rosso IM, Meloni EG, Rauch SL, Carlezon WA. Post-traumatic stress disorder: clinical and translational neuroscience from cells to circuits. Nat Rev Neurol 2022; 18:273-288. [PMID: 35352034 PMCID: PMC9682920 DOI: 10.1038/s41582-022-00635-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a maladaptive and debilitating psychiatric disorder, characterized by re-experiencing, avoidance, negative emotions and thoughts, and hyperarousal in the months and years following exposure to severe trauma. PTSD has a prevalence of approximately 6-8% in the general population, although this can increase to 25% among groups who have experienced severe psychological trauma, such as combat veterans, refugees and victims of assault. The risk of developing PTSD in the aftermath of severe trauma is determined by multiple factors, including genetics - at least 30-40% of the risk of PTSD is heritable - and past history, for example, prior adult and childhood trauma. Many of the primary symptoms of PTSD, including hyperarousal and sleep dysregulation, are increasingly understood through translational neuroscience. In addition, a large amount of evidence suggests that PTSD can be viewed, at least in part, as a disorder that involves dysregulation of normal fear processes. The neural circuitry underlying fear and threat-related behaviour and learning in mammals, including the amygdala-hippocampus-medial prefrontal cortex circuit, is among the most well-understood in behavioural neuroscience. Furthermore, the study of threat-responding and its underlying circuitry has led to rapid progress in understanding learning and memory processes. By combining molecular-genetic approaches with a translational, mechanistic knowledge of fear circuitry, transformational advances in the conceptual framework, diagnosis and treatment of PTSD are possible. In this Review, we describe the clinical features and current treatments for PTSD, examine the neurobiology of symptom domains, highlight genomic advances and discuss translational approaches to understanding mechanisms and identifying new treatments and interventions for this devastating syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry J Ressler
- SPARED Center, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Sabina Berretta
- SPARED Center, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Vadim Y Bolshakov
- SPARED Center, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Isabelle M Rosso
- SPARED Center, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Edward G Meloni
- SPARED Center, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Scott L Rauch
- SPARED Center, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - William A Carlezon
- SPARED Center, Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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3
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Feige B, Baglioni C, Boehm P, Heinrich A, Trumm S, Benz F, Nissen C, Domschke K, Frase L, Riemann D. Event-related potentials in insomnia reflect altered perception of sleep. Sleep 2021; 44:6290313. [PMID: 34059920 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsab137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES Insomnia is defined by the subjective complaint of poor sleep as well as daytime impairments. Since polysomnography (PSG) typically shows only modest sleep impairment, some still unidentified property of sleep, not mirrored in PSG, may be modified in insomnia.One possible mechanistic hypothesis is that insomnia patients may be more sensitive to inevitably occurring internal or external stimuli during the night, causing brief sleep disruptions then perceived as wake time. METHODS Auditory event-related potentials (ERP) to low intensity (50 dB SPL) synthesized guitar tones played continuously throughout two nights of polysomnographically registered sleep were obtained in fifty patients with insomnia disorder (ID, without comorbidities) and 50 age- and sex- matched good sleeper controls (GSC) for each sleep stage and NREM/REM cycle. Phasic and tonic REM were treated as separate stages. Latencies and amplitudes of components P1, N1 and P2 were measured and analyzed by multivariate repeated-measures ANCOVA including effects of group, night, cycle and age. RESULTS ID showed reduced P2 amplitudes relative to GSC specifically in phasic REM sleep. The same reduction also correlated with the amount of sleep misperception across groups. Independent component analysis showed a frontal negativity to contribute most to this group difference. CONCLUSIONS The present finding can be interpreted as increased mismatch negativity (MMN) in ID, reflecting automated detection of change in the auditory system and a concomitant orienting response. Specifically phasic REM sleep appears to be vulnerable to sensory afferences in ID patients, possibly contributing to the perception of being awake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Feige
- Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section of Clinical Psychology and Psychophysiology, Hauptstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Chiara Baglioni
- Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section of Clinical Psychology and Psychophysiology, Hauptstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Boehm
- Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section of Clinical Psychology and Psychophysiology, Hauptstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Anna Heinrich
- Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section of Clinical Psychology and Psychophysiology, Hauptstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Samuel Trumm
- Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section of Clinical Psychology and Psychophysiology, Hauptstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Fee Benz
- Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section of Clinical Psychology and Psychophysiology, Hauptstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Nissen
- University Hospital of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Katharina Domschke
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hauptstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Lukas Frase
- Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section of Clinical Psychology and Psychophysiology, Hauptstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Dieter Riemann
- Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section of Clinical Psychology and Psychophysiology, Hauptstraße, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Breisacherstraße, Freiburg, Germany
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4
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Pandey A, Oliver R, Kar SK. Differential Gene Expression in Brain and Liver Tissue of Wistar Rats after Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Deprivation. Clocks Sleep 2020; 2:442-465. [PMID: 33114225 PMCID: PMC7711450 DOI: 10.3390/clockssleep2040033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sleep is essential for the survival of most living beings. Numerous researchers have identified a series of genes that are thought to regulate "sleep-state" or the "deprived state". As sleep has a significant effect on physiology, we believe that lack of total sleep, or particularly rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, for a prolonged period would have a profound impact on various body tissues. Therefore, using the microarray method, we sought to determine which genes and processes are affected in the brain and liver of rats following nine days of REM sleep deprivation. Our findings showed that REM sleep deprivation affected a total of 652 genes in the brain and 426 genes in the liver. Only 23 genes were affected commonly, 10 oppositely, and 13 similarly across brain and liver tissue. Our results suggest that nine-day REM sleep deprivation differentially affects genes and processes in the brain and liver of rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atul Pandey
- School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel;
| | - Ryan Oliver
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel;
| | - Santosh K Kar
- School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
- Nano Herb Research Laboratory, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Technology Bio Incubator, Campus-11, KIIT Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751024, India
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5
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Pandey A, Kar SK. Rapid Eye Movement sleep deprivation of rat generates ROS in the hepatocytes and makes them more susceptible to oxidative stress. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 11:245-253. [PMID: 30746042 PMCID: PMC6361303 DOI: 10.5935/1984-0063.20180039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Background Rapid Eye Movement sleep deprivation (REMSD) of rats causes inflammation of
the liver and apoptotic cell death of neurons and hepatocytes. Studies also
suggest that REM sleep deprivation can cause muscle as well as cardiac
injury and neurodegenerative diseases. Objective and methods The aim of this research was to determine whether REM sleep deprivation of
rats would increase the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the
hepatocytes and create oxidative stress in them. We selectively deprived the
rats for REM sleep using the standard flower pot method. Results We observed that when rats were subjected to REM sleep deprivation, the
levels of ROS in their hepatocytes increased ~184.33% compared to large
platform control (LPC) group by day 9 of deprivation, but it returned
towards normal level (~49.27%) after recovery sleep for 5 days. Nitric oxide
synthase (iNOS) gene expression and protein levels as determined by
real-time PCR and western blot analysis respectively were found to be
elevated in hepatocytes of REM sleep deprived rats as compared to the LPC
group. The level of nitric oxide (NO) in the hepatocytes of REMSD rats also
increased by ~404.40% as compared to the LPC group but sleep recovery for 5
days normalized the effect (~135.35% compared to LPC group). We used a large
platform control group as a reference group to compare with the REM sleep
deprived group as the effect on the hepatocytes of both LPC group and cage
control groups were not significantly different. Discussion We have analyzed the oxidative stress generated in the hepatocytes of rats
due to REM sleep deprivation and further consequences of it. REMS
deprivation not only increased the levels of ROS in the hepatocytes but also
induced iNOS and NO in them. REM sleep deprived hepatocytes became more
susceptible to oxidative stresses on further exposures. Furthermore, our
study has great pathological and physiological.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atul Pandey
- Jawaharlal Nehru University, School of Biotechnology - New Delhi - Delhi - India.,The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior - Jerusalem - Jerusalem - Israel
| | - Santosh K Kar
- Jawaharlal Nehru University, School of Biotechnology - New Delhi - Delhi - India.,Kallinga Institute of Industrial Technology, School of Biotechnology - Bhubaneshwar - Bhubneshwar - India
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6
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Mehta R, Singh A, Bókkon I, Nath Mallick B. REM sleep and its Loss-Associated Epigenetic Regulation with Reference to Noradrenaline in Particular. Curr Neuropharmacol 2016; 14:28-40. [PMID: 26813120 PMCID: PMC4787282 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666150414185737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Revised: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Sleep is an essential physiological process, which has been divided into rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) and non-REMS (NREMS) in higher animals. REMS is a unique phenomenon that unlike other sleep-waking states is not under voluntary control. Directly or indirectly it influences or gets influenced by most of the physiological processes controlled by the brain. It has been proposed that REMS serves housekeeping function of the brain. Extensive research has shown that during REMS at least noradrenaline (NA) -ergic neurons must cease activity and upon REMS loss, there are increased levels of NA in the brain, which then induces many of the REMS loss associated acute and chronic effects. The NA level is controlled by many bio-molecules that are regulated at the molecular and transcriptional levels. Similarly, NA can also directly or indirectly modulate the synthesis and levels of many molecules, which in turn may affect physiological processes. The burgeoning field of behavioral neuroepigenetics has gained importance in recent years and explains the regulatory mechanisms underlying several behavioral phenomena. As REMS and its loss associated changes in NA modulate several pathophysiological processes, in this review we have attempted to explain on one hand how the epigenetic mechanisms regulating the gene expression of factors like tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), monoamine oxidase (MAO), noradrenaline transporter (NAT) control NA levels and on the other hand, how NA per se can affect other molecules in neural circuitry at the epigenetic level resulting in behavioral changes in health and diseases. An
understanding of these events will expose the molecular basis of REMS and its loss-associated pathophysiological changes; which are presented as a testable hypothesis for confirmation.
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7
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Kato T, Masuda Y, Miyano K, Higashiyama M, Yano H, Haque T, Sato F, Yoshida A. Distinct association between the antagonistic jaw muscle activity levels and cardiac activity during chewing and NREM sleep in the freely moving guinea pigs. Neurosci Lett 2015; 592:59-63. [PMID: 25748316 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Revised: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the changes of the association between cardiac activity and the electromyographic (EMG) level of the antagonistic jaw muscles during chewing and NREM sleep in guinea pigs after systemic clonidine injections. Ten animals were prepared for chronic experiments to monitor sleep, cardiac activity and EMG activity of jaw-closing masseter (MAS) and jaw-opening anterior belly of digastric (ADG) muscles. The recordings were made for ten hours with the injections of saline or clonidine (10 μg/kg, i.p.). Integrated EMG activity of the two muscles and mean heart rate (mHR) were calculated for every 10-s epoch. During the two hours after clonidine injection, the duration of REM sleep and mHR were significantly reduced. During chewing, the high EMG activity level of the two muscles and the activity ratio between the two muscles were not modified although mHR was decreased. During NREM sleep, after clonidine injection, the low EMG activity level at baseline was further decreased by 20-30% in parallel to a decrease of mHR although the heterogeneity of the activity ratio remained unaltered. The results suggest that the maintenance of the activity level for the antagonistic jaw muscles are regulated by the distinct physiological mechanisms reflecting the behavioral states during conscious chewing and unconscious NREM sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Kato
- Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Department of Oral Anatomy and Neurobiology, Japan.
| | - Yuji Masuda
- Matsumoto Dental University, Graduate School of Oral Medicine, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Biology, Japan
| | - Keiji Miyano
- Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Department of Fixed Prosthodontics, Japan
| | - Makoto Higashiyama
- Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Department of Fixed Prosthodontics, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Yano
- Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery II, Japan
| | - Tahsinul Haque
- Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Department of Oral Anatomy and Neurobiology, Japan
| | - Fumihiko Sato
- Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Department of Oral Anatomy and Neurobiology, Japan
| | - Atsushi Yoshida
- Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Department of Oral Anatomy and Neurobiology, Japan
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8
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Singh A, Mallick BN. Targeting modulation of noradrenalin release in the brain for amelioration of REMS loss-associated effects. J Transl Int Med 2015; 3:8-16. [PMID: 27847879 PMCID: PMC4936468 DOI: 10.4103/2224-4018.154288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) loss affects most of the physiological processes, and it has been proposed that REMS maintains normal physiological processes. Changes in cultural, social, personal traits and life-style severely affect the amount and pattern of sleep, including REMS, which then manifests symptoms in animals, including humans. The effects may vary from simple fatigue and irritability to severe patho-physiological and behavioral deficits such as cognitive and behavioral dysfunctions. It has been a challenge to identify a molecule(s) that may have a potential for treating REMS loss-associated symptoms, which are very diverse. For decades, the critical role of locus coeruleus neurons in regulating REMS has been known, which has further been supported by the fact that the noradrenalin (NA) level is elevated in the brain after REMS loss. In this review, we have collected evidence from the published literature, including those from this laboratory, and argue that factors that affect REMS and vice versa modulate the level of a common molecule, the NA. Further, NA is known to affect the physiological processes affected by REMS loss. Therefore, we propose that modulation of the level of NA in the brain may be targeted for treating REMS loss-related symptoms. Further, we also argue that among the various ways to affect the release of NA-level, targeting α2 adrenoceptor autoreceptor on the pre-synaptic terminal may be the better option for ameliorating REMS loss-associated symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Singh
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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9
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Nadorff MR, Lambdin KK, Germain A. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for nightmare disorder. Int Rev Psychiatry 2014; 26:225-36. [PMID: 24892897 DOI: 10.3109/09540261.2014.888989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Interest in the treatment of nightmares has greatly increased over the last several years as research has demonstrated the clinical significance of nightmare disorder. This paper provides an overview of nightmare disorder, its clinical relevance, and the leading treatments that are available. In particular, the paper defines nightmare disorder and then summarize the recent literature examining the clinical relevance of nightmare disorder, including its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric conditions. The relation between nightmares and suicidality is also discussed. Recent findings on the treatment of nightmare with imagery rehearsal therapy and prazosin are then summarized. Lastly, the paper comments on potential future uses of nightmare treatment including using imagery rehearsal therapy or prazosin as a first-line intervention for post-traumatic stress disorder and using these treatments as an adjunctive therapy to reduce suicide risk in those at risk of suicide with nightmares.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Nadorff
- Department of Psychology, Mississippi State University , Starkville, Mississippi
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10
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Local properties of vigilance states: EMD analysis of EEG signals during sleep-waking states of freely moving rats. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78174. [PMID: 24167606 PMCID: PMC3805530 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the inherent dynamics of the EEG associated to sleep-waking can provide insights into its basic neural regulation. By characterizing the local properties of the EEG using power spectrum, empirical mode decomposition (EMD) and Hilbert-spectral analysis, we can examine the dynamics over a range of time-scales. We analyzed rat EEG during wake, NREMS and REMS using these methods. The average instantaneous phase, power spectral density (PSD) of intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) and the energy content in various frequency bands show characteristic changes in each of the vigilance states. The 2nd and 7th IMFs show changes in PSD for wake and REMS, suggesting that those modes may carry wake- and REMS-associated cognitive, conscious and behavior-specific information of an individual even though the EEG may appear similar. The energy content in θ2 (6Hz-9Hz) band of the 1st IMF for REMS is larger than that of wake. The decrease in the phase function of IMFs from wake to REMS to NREMS indicates decrease of the mean frequency in these states, respectively. The rate of information processing in waking state is more in the time scale described by the first three IMFs than in REMS state. However, for IMF5-IMF7, the rate is more for REMS than that for wake. We obtained Hilbert-Huang spectral entropy, which is a suitable measure of information processing in each of these state-specific EEG. It is possible to evaluate the complex dynamics of the EEG in each of the vigilance states by applying measures based on EMD and Hilbert-transform. Our results suggest that the EMD based nonlinear measures of the EEG can provide useful estimates of the information possessed by various oscillations associated with the vigilance states. Further, the EMD-based spectral measures may have implications in understanding anatamo-physiological correlates of sleep-waking behavior and clinical diagnosis of sleep-pathology.
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11
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A mathematical model towards understanding the mechanism of neuronal regulation of wake-NREMS-REMS states. PLoS One 2012; 7:e42059. [PMID: 22905114 PMCID: PMC3414531 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 07/02/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study we have constructed a mathematical model of a recently proposed functional model known to be responsible for inducing waking, NREMS and REMS. Simulation studies using this model reproduced sleep-wake patterns as reported in normal animals. The model helps to explain neural mechanism(s) that underlie the transitions between wake, NREMS and REMS as well as how both the homeostatic sleep-drive and the circadian rhythm shape the duration of each of these episodes. In particular, this mathematical model demonstrates and confirms that an underlying mechanism for REMS generation is pre-synaptic inhibition from substantia nigra onto the REM-off terminals that project on REM-on neurons, as has been recently proposed. The importance of orexinergic neurons in stabilizing the wake-sleep cycle is demonstrated by showing how even small changes in inputs to or from those neurons can have a large impact on the ensuing dynamics. The results from this model allow us to make predictions of the neural mechanisms of regulation and patho-physiology of REMS.
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12
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Activation of inactivation process initiates rapid eye movement sleep. Prog Neurobiol 2012; 97:259-76. [PMID: 22521402 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2011] [Revised: 04/01/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Interactions among REM-ON and REM-OFF neurons form the basic scaffold for rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) regulation; however, precise mechanism of their activation and cessation, respectively, was unclear. Locus coeruleus (LC) noradrenalin (NA)-ergic neurons are REM-OFF type and receive GABA-ergic inputs among others. GABA acts postsynaptically on the NA-ergic REM-OFF neurons in the LC and presynaptically on the latter's projection terminals and modulates NA-release on the REM-ON neurons. Normally during wakefulness and non-REMS continuous release of NA from the REM-OFF neurons, which however, is reduced during the latter phase, inhibits the REM-ON neurons and prevents REMS. At this stage GABA from substantia nigra pars reticulate acting presynaptically on NA-ergic terminals on REM-ON neurons withdraws NA-release causing the REM-ON neurons to escape inhibition and being active, may be even momentarily. A working-model showing neurochemical-map explaining activation of inactivation process, showing contribution of GABA-ergic presynaptic inhibition in withdrawing NA-release and dis-inhibition induced activation of REM-ON neurons, which in turn activates other GABA-ergic neurons and shutting-off REM-OFF neurons for the initiation of REMS-generation has been explained. Our model satisfactorily explains yet unexplained puzzles (i) why normally REMS does not appear during waking, rather, appears following non-REMS; (ii) why cessation of LC-NA-ergic-REM-OFF neurons is essential for REMS-generation; (iii) factor(s) which does not allow cessation of REM-OFF neurons causes REMS-loss; (iv) the association of changes in levels of GABA and NA in the brain during REMS and its deprivation and associated symptoms; v) why often dreams are associated with REMS.
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13
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Madan V, Jha SK. A Moderate Increase of Physiological CO(2) in a Critical Range during Stable NREM Sleep Episode: A Potential Gateway to REM Sleep. Front Neurol 2012; 3:19. [PMID: 22363318 PMCID: PMC3282299 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2012.00019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Sleep is characterized as rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Studies suggest that wake-related neurons in the basal forebrain, posterior hypothalamus and brainstem, and NREM sleep-related neurons in the anterior-hypothalamic area inhibit each other, thus alternating sleep-wakefulness. Similarly, pontine REM-ON and REM-OFF neurons reciprocally inhibit each other for REM sleep modulation. It has been proposed that inhibition of locus coeruleus (LC) REM-OFF neurons is pre-requisite for REM sleep genesis, but it remains ambiguous how REM-OFF neurons are hyperpolarized at REM sleep onset. The frequency of breathing pattern remains high during wake, slows down during NREM sleep but further escalates during REM sleep. As a result, brain CO(2) level increases during NREM sleep, which may alter REM sleep manifestation. It has been reported that hypocapnia decreases REM sleep while hypercapnia increases REM sleep periods. The groups of brainstem chemosensory neurons, including those present in LC, sense the alteration in CO(2) level and respond accordingly. For example, one group of LC neurons depolarize while other hyperpolarize during hypercapnia. In another group, hypercapnia initially depolarizes but later hyperpolarizes LC neurons. Besides chemosensory functions, LC REM-OFF neurons are an integral part of REM sleep executive machinery. We reason that increased CO(2) level during a stable NREM sleep period may hyperpolarize LC neurons including REM-OFF, which may help initiate REM sleep. We propose that REM sleep might act as a sentinel to help maintain normal CO(2) level for unperturbed sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vibha Madan
- Sleep Research Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi, India
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Dekeyne A, Brocco M, Loiseau F, Gobert A, Rivet JM, Di Cara B, Cremers TI, Flik G, Fone KCF, Watson DJG, Papp M, Sharp T, Serres F, Cespuglio R, Olivier B, Chan JSW, Lavielle G, Millan MJ. S32212, a Novel Serotonin Type 2C Receptor Inverse Agonist/α2-Adrenoceptor Antagonist and Potential Antidepressant: II. A Behavioral, Neurochemical, and Electrophysiological Characterization. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 340:765-80. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.111.187534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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Azulay DOD, Renoux B, Ivarsson M. Evidence of a pharmacodynamic EEG profile in rats following clonidine administration using a nonlinear analysis. NONLINEAR BIOMEDICAL PHYSICS 2011; 5:4. [PMID: 21703022 PMCID: PMC3141322 DOI: 10.1186/1753-4631-5-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2011] [Accepted: 06/26/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Changes caused by clonidine in rodent electroencephalograms (EEG) have been reported with some inconsistency. For this reason, a pre-clinical study was conducted in order to confirm previous findings with both a standard spectral analysis and a sleep stage scoring procedure. In addition, a nonlinear technique for analysing the time-varying signals was implemented to compare its performance against conventional approaches. RESULTS The nonlinear method succeeds in quantifying all dose-related responses from the data set relying solely on the EEG trace. CONCLUSIONS Nonlinear approaches can deliver a suitable alternative to the sleep-stage scoring methods commonly used for drug effect detection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin Renoux
- Ecole des Mines d'Alès, Avenue Clavières, 30319, Alès, France
| | - Magnus Ivarsson
- Pfizer Global Research and Development, Ramsgate Road, Sandwich, CT13 9NJ, UK
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REM sleep loss increases brain excitability: role of noradrenaline and its mechanism of action. Sleep Med Rev 2011; 15:165-78. [PMID: 21482157 DOI: 10.1016/j.smrv.2010.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2010] [Revised: 10/24/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Ever since the discovery of rapid eye movement sleep (REMS), studies have been undertaken to understand its necessity, function and mechanism of action on normal physiological processes as well as in pathological conditions. In this review, first, we briefly surveyed the literature which led us to hypothesise REMS maintains brain excitability. Thereafter, we present evidence from in vivo and in vitro studies tracing behavioural to cellular to molecular pathways showing REMS deprivation (REMSD) increases noradrenaline level in the brain, which stimulates neuronal Na-K ATPase, the key factor for maintaining neuronal excitability, the fundamental property of a neuron for executing brain functions; we also show for the first time the role of glia in maintaining ionic homeostasis in the brain. As REMSD exerts a global effect on most of the physiological processes regulated by the brain, we propose that REMS possibly serves a housekeeping function in the brain. Finally, subject to confirmation from clinical studies, based on the results reviewed here, it is being proposed that the subjects suffering from REMS loss may be effectively treated by reducing either noradrenaline level or Na-K ATPase activity in the brain.
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17
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Total sleep deprivation impairs the encoding of trace-conditioned memory in the rat. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2011; 95:355-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2011.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2010] [Revised: 12/25/2010] [Accepted: 01/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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18
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Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is increasingly recognized as a serious and potentially debilitating condition in combat veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. Exposure to a potentially life-threatening event such as military combat may be followed by PTSD. Despite recent advances in pharmacotherapy for PTSD, monotherapy with the currently available medications is only partially effective, as demonstrated in large clinical trials of combat veterans with PTSD. This underscores the need to investigate novel combination strategies to enhance treatment response in PTSD. The α-1 adrenergic receptor (AR) antagonist, prazosin, appears promising in recent studies for its capacity to reduce trauma-related nightmares (a group B night-time intrusion symptom) and insomnia (a group D night-time arousal symptom), while recent evidence supports using the β-AR antagonist, propranolol, to dampen the emotional content of traumatic memories (daytime intrusion symptoms including flashbacks, intrusive recollections of traumatic event, and heightened physiological reactivity/ responsivity to trauma reminders). In this review, we present data supporting the potential utility of combined drug regimen (prazosin and propranolol) acting through different noradrenergic mechanisms, with the potential to target more than one set of PTSD symptoms to optimize PTSD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mujeeb U Shad
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 2201 Inwood Road, NE5.110G, Dallas, TX, USA.
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Gibbs ME, Hutchinson DS, Summers RJ. Noradrenaline release in the locus coeruleus modulates memory formation and consolidation; roles for α- and β-adrenergic receptors. Neuroscience 2010; 170:1209-22. [PMID: 20709158 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2010] [Revised: 07/24/2010] [Accepted: 07/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Noradrenaline, essential for the modulation of memory, is released in various parts of the brain from nerve terminals controlled by the locus coeruleus (LoC). Noradrenaline release consequent upon input from higher brain areas also occurs within the LoC itself. We examined the effect of noradrenaline on adrenergic receptors in the LoC on memory processing, using colored bead discrimination learning in the young domestic chick. We have shown previously that the release of noradrenaline in the hippocampus and cortex (mesopallium) is essential for acquisition and consolidation of short-term to intermediate and to long-term memory. Noradrenaline release within the LoC is triggered by the glutamatergic input from the forebrain. Inhibition by LoC injection of NMDA or AMPA receptor antagonists is rescued by injection of β2-and β3-adrenoceptor (AR) agonists in the hippocampus. We show that inhibition of α2A-ARs by BRL44408 in the LoC up to 30 min post-training consolidates weakly-reinforced learning. Conversely activation of α2A-ARs in the LoC at the times of consolidation between short-term and intermediate and long-term memory caused memory loss, which is likely to be due to a decreased release of noradrenaline within these two time windows. The α2A-AR antagonist will block presynaptic inhibitory receptors leading to an increase in extracellular noradrenaline. This interpretation is supported by the actions of noradrenaline uptake blockers that produce the same memory outcome. BRL44408 in the mesopallium also caused memory enhancement. β2-ARs are important in the first time window, whereas α1-, α2C-and β3-ARs are important in the second time window. The results reveal that for successful memory formation noradrenaline release is necessary within the LoC as well as in other brain regions, at the time of consolidation of memory from short-term to intermediate and from intermediate to long-term memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Gibbs
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia.
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20
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Kambe D, Kotani M, Yoshimoto M, Kaku S, Chaki S, Honda K. Effects of quercetin on the sleep–wake cycle in rats: Involvement of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor type A in regulation of rapid eye movement sleep. Brain Res 2010; 1330:83-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2009] [Revised: 02/12/2010] [Accepted: 03/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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21
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Radács M, Molnár AH, László FA, Varga C, László F, Gálfi M. Inhibitory Effect of Galanin on Adrenaline- and Noradrenaline-Induced Increased Oxytocin Secretion in Rat Neurohypophyseal Cell Cultures. J Mol Neurosci 2010; 42:59-66. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-010-9331-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2009] [Accepted: 01/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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22
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Pal D, Mallick BN. GABA in pedunculopontine tegmentum increases rapid eye movement sleep in freely moving rats: possible role of GABA-ergic inputs from substantia nigra pars reticulata. Neuroscience 2009; 164:404-14. [PMID: 19698764 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2009] [Revised: 07/22/2009] [Accepted: 08/12/2009] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Pedunculopontine tegmentum (PPT) has GABA-ergic neurons and receives GABA-ergic projections from substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNrpr). Based on the recent studies from our and other laboratories, it was hypothesized that GABA in PPT promotes rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. In order to further study the role of GABA in PPT in REM sleep regulation, we microinjected GABA-A agonist, muscimol (200 nL, 3.5 mM), into the PPT. Muscimol in PPT significantly enhanced the amount of REM sleep by increasing the mean number of REM sleep bouts. Besides the local interneurons, GABA-ergic afferents from SNrpr are another source of GABA in PPT. In order to understand the contribution of GABA-ergic inputs from SNrpr into PPT for REM sleep regulation, SNrpr was electrically stimulated either alone or simultaneously along with the infusion of GABA-A antagonist, picrotoxin (200 nL, 0.86 mM), into the PPT. The experiment was designed with the premise that stimulation of SNrpr should increase GABA levels in PPT which should increase REM sleep comparable to that after muscimol microinjection in PPT. Further, the effect of stimulation of SNrpr on REM sleep should be antagonized by simultaneous infusion of picrotoxin into PPT. The electrical stimulation of SNrpr did not produce any significant change in sleep-wake states although it was sufficient to counter the effect of picrotoxin injection into the PPT. To overcome the limitations and confounds of electrical stimulation, SNrpr was pharmacologically stimulated by glutamate microinjection (200 nL, 5.34 mM). Infusion of glutamate into SNrpr enhanced REM sleep by increasing the mean number of REM sleep bouts, which was similar and comparable to the effect of muscimol injection into the PPT. The results confirm that GABA in PPT either from local neurons or from SNrpr promotes REM sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Pal
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi 110067, India
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23
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Revel FG, Gottowik J, Gatti S, Wettstein JG, Moreau JL. Rodent models of insomnia: A review of experimental procedures that induce sleep disturbances. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009; 33:874-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2008] [Revised: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 03/04/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Abstract
Disturbed sleep is one of the hallmark signs of depression. After successful treatment, many of these signs disappear; however, changes in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep may persist and even predict recurrence of depression. High-risk studies have established these alterations to be not only biological scars but true endophenotypes for depression. REM sleep changes are mediated by the noradrenergic, serotonergic, and cholinergic systems and are under strong genetic control. REM sleep has a crucial role for brain maturation and is inhibited during ontogeny. Lack of this inhibition may predispose an individual to depression. Findings regarding the CREB gene support REM sleep's role in depression. The combination of psychopathology and neurobiological measures, such as REM sleep parameters, will help to improve genetic studies and therefore increase the knowledge of relevant pathways for depression. This could facilitate development of preventive and therapeutic measures.
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25
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Krystal AD, Davidson JRT. The use of prazosin for the treatment of trauma nightmares and sleep disturbance in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 61:925-7. [PMID: 17397667 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2007] [Revised: 02/15/2007] [Accepted: 02/18/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Krystal
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
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26
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Gottesmann C, Gottesman I. The neurobiological characteristics of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep are candidate endophenotypes of depression, schizophrenia, mental retardation and dementia. Prog Neurobiol 2007; 81:237-50. [PMID: 17350744 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2007.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2006] [Revised: 12/14/2006] [Accepted: 01/10/2007] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Animal models are a promising method to approach the basic mechanisms of the neurobiological disturbances encountered in mental disorders. Depression is characterized by a decrease of REM sleep latency and an increase of rapid eye movement density. In schizophrenia, electrophysiological, tomographic, pharmacological and neurochemical activities are all encountered during REM sleep. Mental retardation and dementia are characterized by rather specific REM sleep disturbances. Identification of the genetic support for these abnormalities (endophenotypes) encountered during REM sleep could help to develop specific treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claude Gottesmann
- Département des Sciences de la Vie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, 22 parc Lubonis, 06000 Nice, France.
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27
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van Liempt S, Vermetten E, Geuze E, Westenberg HGM. Pharmacotherapy for disordered sleep in post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 21:193-202. [PMID: 16687990 DOI: 10.1097/00004850-200607000-00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Sleep disorders, such as insomnia and nightmares, are common problems in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), exert a strong negative influence on the quality of life and are a great challenge for clinical psychiatry. Several studies have reported on the efficacy of drugs for the treatment of PTSD-related sleep disorders. These studies have not been systematically reviewed. This is the first review on the effectiveness of sleep medication in PTSD. We performed a Medline, EMBASE and Cochrane Library Indexed search, using the keywords: PTSD, pharmacotherapy, therapy, sleep, nightmares, insomnia and review. From this database, English-language, human subject, data driven papers published after 1980 were selected. Forty eight articles are discussed. Open-label and case studies suggest efficacy for some antidepressants, anticonvulsants and atypical antipsychotics. Only a few placebo-controlled studies have been published. They show promising results for the atypical antipsychotic olanzapine, and the alpha1-adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin. In comparison to the incidence and impact of sleep complaints in PTSD, the pharmacotherapeutic armamentarium for PTSD-related sleep complaints remains poorly investigated. Some recent studies show promising results, especially for alpha1-adrenoceptor and 5-HT2 receptor antagonists. However, randomized controlled trials with larger populations need to be conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia van Liempt
- Department of Military Psychiatry, Central Military Hospital, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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28
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Bay KD, Mamiya K, Good CH, Skinner RD, Garcia-Rill E. Alpha-2 adrenergic regulation of pedunculopontine nucleus neurons during development. Neuroscience 2006; 141:769-779. [PMID: 16753270 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2006] [Revised: 03/30/2006] [Accepted: 04/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Rapid eye movement sleep decreases between 10 and 30 days postnatally in the rat. The pedunculopontine nucleus is known to modulate waking and rapid eye movement sleep, and pedunculopontine nucleus neurons are thought to be hyperpolarized by noradrenergic input from the locus coeruleus. The goal of the study was to investigate the possibility that a change in alpha-2 adrenergic inhibition of pedunculopontine nucleus cells during this period could explain at least part of the developmental decrease in rapid eye movement sleep. We, therefore, recorded intracellularly in 12-21 day rat brainstem slices maintained in oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid. Putative cholinergic vs. non-cholinergic pedunculopontine nucleus neurons were identified using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase histochemistry and intracellular injection of neurobiotin (Texas Red immunocytochemistry). Pedunculopontine nucleus neurons also were identified by intrinsic membrane properties, type I (low threshold spike), type II (A) and type III (A+low threshold spike), as previously described. Clonidine (20 microM) hyperpolarized most cholinergic and non-cholinergic pedunculopontine nucleus cells. This hyperpolarization decreased significantly in amplitude (mean+/-S.E.) from -6.8+/-1.0 mV at 12-13 days, to -3.0+/-0.7 mV at 20-21 days. However, much of these early effects (12-15 days) were indirect such that direct effects (tested following sodium channel blockade with tetrodotoxin (0.3 microM)) resulted in hyperpolarization averaging -3.4+/-0.5 mV, similar to that evident at 16-21 days. Non-cholinergic cells were less hyperpolarized than cholinergic cells at 12-13 days (-1.6+/-0.3 mV), but equally hyperpolarized at 20-21 days (-3.3+/-1.3 mV). In those cells tested, hyperpolarization was blocked by yohimbine, an alpha-2 adrenergic receptor antagonist (1.5 microM). These results suggest that the alpha-2 adrenergic receptor on cholinergic pedunculopontine nucleus neurons activated by clonidine may play only a modest role, if any, in the developmental decrease in rapid eye movement sleep. Clonidine blocked or reduced the hyperpolarization-activated inward cation conductance, so that its effects on the firing rate of a specific population of pedunculopontine nucleus neurons could be significant. In conclusion, the alpha-2 adrenergic input to pedunculopontine nucleus neurons appears to consistently modulate the firing rate of cholinergic and non-cholinergic pedunculopontine nucleus neurons, with important effects on the regulation of sleep-wake states.
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Affiliation(s)
- K D Bay
- Center for Translational Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology and Dev. Sci., College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 West Markham Street, Slot 847, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - K Mamiya
- Center for Translational Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology and Dev. Sci., College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 West Markham Street, Slot 847, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - C H Good
- Center for Translational Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology and Dev. Sci., College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 West Markham Street, Slot 847, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - R D Skinner
- Center for Translational Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology and Dev. Sci., College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 West Markham Street, Slot 847, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - E Garcia-Rill
- Center for Translational Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology and Dev. Sci., College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 West Markham Street, Slot 847, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA.
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Millan MJ. Multi-target strategies for the improved treatment of depressive states: Conceptual foundations and neuronal substrates, drug discovery and therapeutic application. Pharmacol Ther 2006; 110:135-370. [PMID: 16522330 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 388] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2005] [Accepted: 11/28/2005] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Major depression is a debilitating and recurrent disorder with a substantial lifetime risk and a high social cost. Depressed patients generally display co-morbid symptoms, and depression frequently accompanies other serious disorders. Currently available drugs display limited efficacy and a pronounced delay to onset of action, and all provoke distressing side effects. Cloning of the human genome has fuelled expectations that symptomatic treatment may soon become more rapid and effective, and that depressive states may ultimately be "prevented" or "cured". In pursuing these objectives, in particular for genome-derived, non-monoaminergic targets, "specificity" of drug actions is often emphasized. That is, priority is afforded to agents that interact exclusively with a single site hypothesized as critically involved in the pathogenesis and/or control of depression. Certain highly selective drugs may prove effective, and they remain indispensable in the experimental (and clinical) evaluation of the significance of novel mechanisms. However, by analogy to other multifactorial disorders, "multi-target" agents may be better adapted to the improved treatment of depressive states. Support for this contention is garnered from a broad palette of observations, ranging from mechanisms of action of adjunctive drug combinations and electroconvulsive therapy to "network theory" analysis of the etiology and management of depressive states. The review also outlines opportunities to be exploited, and challenges to be addressed, in the discovery and characterization of drugs recognizing multiple targets. Finally, a diversity of multi-target strategies is proposed for the more efficacious and rapid control of core and co-morbid symptoms of depression, together with improved tolerance relative to currently available agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Millan
- Institut de Recherches Servier, Centre de Recherches de Croissy, Psychopharmacology Department, 125, Chemin de Ronde, 78290-Croissy/Seine, France.
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Pal D, Mallick BN. Role of noradrenergic and GABA-ergic inputs in pedunculopontine tegmentum for regulation of rapid eye movement sleep in rats. Neuropharmacology 2006; 51:1-11. [PMID: 16616214 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2006.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2005] [Revised: 02/10/2006] [Accepted: 02/13/2006] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep disturbance is associated with several psycho-behavioral disorders, hence, it is important to understand its neural mechanism of regulation. Although it was known that the noradrenergic (NA-ergic) neurons from locus coeruleus (LC) project to the pedunculopontine tegmentum (PPT), the role of noradrenaline (NA) alone and in association with GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, in PPT for REM sleep regulation was not known and was investigated in this study in freely moving normally behaving rats. Rats were surgically prepared for electrophysiological sleep-wake recording and simultaneous bilateral microinjections into PPT. 200nl of prazosin (alpha1-antagonist) or clonidine (alpha2-agonist) or propranolol (beta-antagonist) or combination of picrotoxin (GABA-A antagonist) and clonidine or vehicle (control) was microinjected bilaterally into PPT using a remote-controlled pump and the effects on REM sleep compared. Prazosin, clonidine and propranolol increased the total time spent in REM sleep whereas co-injection of picrotoxin and clonidine did not affect REM sleep. The results suggest that NA in PPT tonically inhibits REM sleep, possibly by acting on the cholinergic REM-ON neurons, while GABA inhibits the release of NA for REM sleep regulation. A model of neural connections explaining such regulation has been presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinesh Pal
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110 067, India
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