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Bartsoen E, Wöhr M. Detailed spectrographic analysis of rat ultrasonic vocalizations emitted during the acoustic startle response test. Physiol Behav 2023; 270:114290. [PMID: 37423456 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Rats emit ultrasonic vocalizations (USV). During aversive situations, rats emit 22-kHz USV, which are considered "alarm calls" and supposed to reflect a negative affective state of the sender. During appetitive situations, rats emit 50-kHz USV, which are believed to reflect a positive affective state. Here, we recorded USV emission in adult male rats during the acoustic startle response test. Our results indicate varied USV emission in both the 22- and 50-kHz USV ranges. Enhanced startle responses were observed in rats with a predominant 22-kHz call profile, supporting the notion that 22-kHz USV emission is associated with a negative affective state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Bartsoen
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Research Unit Brain and Cognition, Laboratory of Biological Psychology, Social and Affective Neuroscience Research Group, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Markus Wöhr
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Research Unit Brain and Cognition, Laboratory of Biological Psychology, Social and Affective Neuroscience Research Group, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium; Philipps-University of Marburg, Faculty of Psychology, Experimental and Biological Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience, D-35032, Marburg, Germany; Philipps-University of Marburg, Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior, D-35032 Marburg, Germany.
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2
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Mallien AS, Becker L, Pfeiffer N, Terraneo F, Hahn M, Middelman A, Palme R, Creutzberg KC, Begni V, Riva MA, Leo D, Potschka H, Fumagalli F, Homberg JR, Gass P. Dopamine Transporter Knockout Rats Show Impaired Wellbeing in a Multimodal Severity Assessment Approach. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:924603. [PMID: 35898652 PMCID: PMC9309546 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.924603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In preclinical psychiatry research, animals are central to modeling and understanding biological mechanisms of behavior and psychiatric disorders. We here present the first multimodal severity assessment of a genetically modified rat strain used in psychiatric research, lacking the dopamine transporter (DAT) gene and showing endophenotypes of several dopamine-associated disorders. Absence of the DAT leads to high extracellular dopamine (DA) levels and has been associated with locomotor hyperactivity, compulsive behaviors and stereotypies in the past. The German Animal Welfare Law, which is based on the EU Directive (2010/63/EU), requires a prospective severity assessment for every animal experiment, depending on the extent of the expected degree of pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm that the animals will experience. This should consider all procedures but also the impact of the genotype on the phenotype. Therefore, we examined multiple parameters indicating animal welfare, like burrowing behavior, social interaction, saccharin preference, baseline stress hormone levels and nesting behavior. Additionally, a footprint analysis was performed and home cage activity was analyzed for a more detailed characterization of locomotion. DAT KO rats demonstrated reduced burrowing, social interaction and saccharin preference. We also found pronounced stereotypies and alterations in the gait analysis in DAT KO rats. Moreover, we confirmed the hyperactivity and the impaired sensorimotor gating mechanisms to assure that our rats are exhibiting the correct phenotype. In conclusion, we provide evidence that DAT KO rats show alterations in natural behavior patterns and deduce that the marked stereotypies are a sign for coping difficulties, both indicating a negative influence of the genotype on wellbeing. We suggest to assess further rat models in an objectified severity assessment as previously done in mice to create a relative severity assessment based on scientific evidence. Until then, we propose the classification of homozygous DAT KO rats as “moderate” in accordance with the criteria of the EU directive 2010/63.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Stephanie Mallien
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
- *Correspondence: Anne Stephanie Mallien,
| | - Laura Becker
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Natascha Pfeiffer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Federica Terraneo
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Melissa Hahn
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Anthonieke Middelman
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Rupert Palme
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kerstin Camile Creutzberg
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Veronica Begni
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Andrea Riva
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Damiana Leo
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Mons, Mons, Belgium
| | - Heidrun Potschka
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Fabio Fumagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Judith R. Homberg
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Centre for Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Peter Gass
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
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3
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Statham P, Hannuna S, Jones S, Campbell N, Robert Colborne G, Browne WJ, Paul ES, Mendl M. Quantifying defence cascade responses as indicators of pig affect and welfare using computer vision methods. Sci Rep 2020; 10:8933. [PMID: 32488058 PMCID: PMC7265448 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-65954-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Affective states are key determinants of animal welfare. Assessing such states under field conditions is thus an important goal in animal welfare science. The rapid Defence Cascade (DC) response (startle, freeze) to sudden unexpected stimuli is a potential indicator of animal affect; humans and rodents in negative affective states often show potentiated startle magnitude and freeze duration. To be a practical field welfare indicator, quick and easy measurement is necessary. Here we evaluate whether DC responses can be quantified in pigs using computer vision. 280 video clips of induced DC responses made by 12 pigs were analysed by eye to provide 'ground truth' measures of startle magnitude and freeze duration which were also estimated by (i) sparse feature tracking computer vision image analysis of 200 Hz video, (ii) load platform, (iii) Kinect depth camera, and (iv) Kinematic data. Image analysis data strongly predicted ground truth measures and were strongly positively correlated with these and all other estimates of DC responses. Characteristics of the DC-inducing stimulus, pig orientation relative to it, and 'relaxed-tense' pig behaviour prior to it moderated DC responses. Computer vision image analysis thus offers a practical approach to measuring pig DC responses, and potentially pig affect and welfare, under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poppy Statham
- Animal Welfare and Behaviour Group, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, BS40 5DU, UK
| | - Sion Hannuna
- Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, Merchant Venturers Building, Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 1UB, UK
| | - Samantha Jones
- Animal Welfare and Behaviour Group, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, BS40 5DU, UK
| | - Neill Campbell
- Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, Merchant Venturers Building, Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 1UB, UK
| | - G Robert Colborne
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, 4410, New Zealand
| | - William J Browne
- School of Education and Centre for Multilevel Modelling, University of Bristol, 35 Berkeley Square, Bristol, BS8 1JA, UK
| | - Elizabeth S Paul
- Animal Welfare and Behaviour Group, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, BS40 5DU, UK
| | - Michael Mendl
- Animal Welfare and Behaviour Group, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, BS40 5DU, UK.
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Lima-Ojeda JM, Mallien AS, Brandwein C, Lang UE, Hefter D, Inta D. Altered prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response in BDNF-deficient mice in a model of early postnatal hypoxia: implications for schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2019; 269:439-447. [PMID: 29453493 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-018-0882-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a major proliferative agent in the nervous system. Both BDNF-deficiency and perinatal hypoxia represent genetic/environmental risk factors for schizophrenia. Moreover, a decreased BDNF response to birth hypoxia was associated with the disease. BDNF expression is influenced by neuronal activity and environmental conditions such as hypoxia. Thus, it may partake in neuroprotective and reparative mechanisms in acute or chronic neuronal insults. However, the interaction of hypoxia and BDNF is insufficiently understood and the behavioral outcome unknown. Therefore, we conducted a battery of behavioral tests in a classical model of chronic early postnatal mild hypoxia (10% O2), known to significantly impair brain development, in BDNF-deficient mice. We found selective deficits in measures associated with sensorimotor gating, namely enhanced acoustic startle response (ASR) and reduced prepulse inhibition (PPI) of ASR in BDNF-deficient mice. Unexpectedly, the alterations of sensorimotor gating were caused only by BDNF-deficiency alone, whereas hypoxia failed to evoke severe deficits and even leads to a milder phenotype in BDNF-deficient mice. As deficits in sensorimotor gating are present in schizophrenia and animal models of the disease, our results are of relevance regarding the involvement of BDNF in its pathogenesis. On the other hand, they suggest that the effect of perinatal hypoxia on long-term brain abnormalities is complex, ranging from protective to deleterious actions, and may critically depend on the degree of hypoxia. Therefore, future studies may refine existing hypoxia protocols to better understand neurodevelopmental consequences associated with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Lima-Ojeda
- RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Anne S Mallien
- RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christiane Brandwein
- RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Undine E Lang
- Department of Psychiatry (UPK), University of Basel, Wilhelm Klein-Strasse 27, 4012, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dimitri Hefter
- RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dragos Inta
- RG Animal Models in Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany. .,Department of Psychiatry (UPK), University of Basel, Wilhelm Klein-Strasse 27, 4012, Basel, Switzerland.
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Reinwald JR, Becker R, Mallien AS, Falfan-Melgoza C, Sack M, Clemm von Hohenberg C, Braun U, Cosa Linan A, Gass N, Vasilescu AN, Tollens F, Lebhardt P, Pfeiffer N, Inta D, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Gass P, Sartorius A, Weber-Fahr W. Neural Mechanisms of Early-Life Social Stress as a Developmental Risk Factor for Severe Psychiatric Disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 84:116-128. [PMID: 29397900 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To explore the domain-general risk factor of early-life social stress in mental illness, rearing rodents in persistent postweaning social isolation has been established as a widely used animal model with translational relevance for neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Although changes in resting-state brain connectivity are a transdiagnostic key finding in neurodevelopmental diseases, a characterization of imaging correlates elicited by early-life social stress is lacking. METHODS We performed resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging of postweaning social isolation rats (N = 23) 9 weeks after isolation. Addressing well-established transdiagnostic connectivity changes of psychiatric disorders, we focused on altered frontal and posterior connectivity using a seed-based approach. Then, we examined changes in regional network architecture and global topology using graph theoretical analysis. RESULTS Seed-based analyses demonstrated reduced functional connectivity in frontal brain regions and increased functional connectivity in posterior brain regions of postweaning social isolation rats. Graph analyses revealed a shift of the regional architecture, characterized by loss of dominance of frontal regions and emergence of nonfrontal regions, correlating to our behavioral results, and a reduced modularity in isolation-reared rats. CONCLUSIONS Our result of functional connectivity alterations in the frontal brain supports previous investigations postulating social neural circuits, including prefrontal brain regions, as key pathways for risk for mental disorders arising through social stressors. We extend this knowledge by demonstrating more widespread changes of brain network organization elicited by early-life social stress, namely a shift of hubness and dysmodularity. Our results highly resemble core alterations in neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, autism, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Rochus Reinwald
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Robert Becker
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Anne Stephanie Mallien
- Research Group Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Claudia Falfan-Melgoza
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Markus Sack
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Clemm von Hohenberg
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Urs Braun
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; Research Group Systems Neuroscience in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alejandro Cosa Linan
- Research Group In Silico Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Natalia Gass
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andrei-Nicolae Vasilescu
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; Research Group Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Fabian Tollens
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Philipp Lebhardt
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Natascha Pfeiffer
- Research Group Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dragos Inta
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; Research Group Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Psychiatry, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Meyer-Lindenberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Peter Gass
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; Research Group Animal Models in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alexander Sartorius
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Weber-Fahr
- Research Group Translational Imaging, Department of Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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Bergado Acosta JR, Schneider M, Fendt M. Intra-accumbal blockade of endocannabinoid CB1 receptors impairs learning but not retention of conditioned relief. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2017.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Friemel CM, Zimmer A, Schneider M. The CB1 receptor as an important mediator of hedonic reward processing. Neuropsychopharmacology 2014; 39:2387-96. [PMID: 24718372 PMCID: PMC4138748 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2014.86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid (ECB) system has emerged recently as a key mediator for reward processing. It is well known that cannabinoids affect appetitive learning processes and can induce reinforcing and rewarding effects. However, the involvement of the ECB system in hedonic aspects of reward-related behavior is not completely understood. With the present study, we investigated the modulatory role of the ECB system on hedonic perception, measured by the pleasure attenuated startle (PAS) paradigm for a palatable food reward. Here, a conditioned odor is thought to induce a pleasant affective state that attenuates an aversive reflex-the acoustic startle response. Modulatory effects of the CB1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist SR1411716 and the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55 212-2 on PAS were examined in rats. PAS was also measured in CB1 receptor knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mice. Pharmacological inhibition as well as the absence of CB1 receptors was found to reduce PAS, whereas WIN 55 212-2 administration increased PAS. Finally, presentation of a conditioned reward cue was found to induce striatal FosB/ΔFosB expression in WT mice, but not in KO mice, indicating a reduced stimulation of reward-related brain regions in conditioned KO mice by odor presentation. We here show that in addition to our previous studies in rats, PAS may also serve as a valuable and suitable measure to assess hedonic processing in mice. Our data further indicate that the ECB system, and in particular CB1 receptor signaling, appears to be highly important for the mediation of hedonic aspects of reward processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris M Friemel
- Reseach Group Developmental Neuropsychopharmacology, Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Andreas Zimmer
- Institute of Molecular Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Miriam Schneider
- Reseach Group Developmental Neuropsychopharmacology, Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany,Reseach Group Developmental Neuropsychopharmacology, Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany, Tel: +1 49 621 17036269, Fax: +1 49 621 17036255, E-mail:
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Gerber B, Yarali A, Diegelmann S, Wotjak CT, Pauli P, Fendt M. Pain-relief learning in flies, rats, and man: basic research and applied perspectives. Learn Mem 2014; 21:232-52. [PMID: 24643725 PMCID: PMC3966540 DOI: 10.1101/lm.032995.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Memories relating to a painful, negative event are adaptive and can be stored for a lifetime to support preemptive avoidance, escape, or attack behavior. However, under unfavorable circumstances such memories can become overwhelmingly powerful. They may trigger excessively negative psychological states and uncontrollable avoidance of locations, objects, or social interactions. It is therefore obvious that any process to counteract such effects will be of value. In this context, we stress from a basic-research perspective that painful, negative events are "Janus-faced" in the sense that there are actually two aspects about them that are worth remembering: What made them happen and what made them cease. We review published findings from fruit flies, rats, and man showing that both aspects, respectively related to the onset and the offset of the negative event, induce distinct and oppositely valenced memories: Stimuli experienced before an electric shock acquire negative valence as they signal upcoming punishment, whereas stimuli experienced after an electric shock acquire positive valence because of their association with the relieving cessation of pain. We discuss how memories for such punishment- and relief-learning are organized, how this organization fits into the threat-imminence model of defensive behavior, and what perspectives these considerations offer for applied psychology in the context of trauma, panic, and nonsuicidal self-injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertram Gerber
- Leibniz Institut für Neurobiologie (LIN), Abteilung Genetik von Lernen und Gedächtnis, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
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Andreatta M, Mühlberger A, Glotzbach-Schoon E, Pauli P. Pain predictability reverses valence ratings of a relief-associated stimulus. Front Syst Neurosci 2013; 7:53. [PMID: 24068989 PMCID: PMC3782145 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 08/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Relief from pain is positively valenced and entails reward-like properties. Notably, stimuli that became associated with pain relief elicit reward-like implicit responses too, but are explicitly evaluated by humans as aversive. Since the unpredictability of pain makes pain more aversive, this study examined the hypotheses that the predictability of pain also modulates the valence of relief-associated stimuli. In two studies, we presented one conditioned stimulus (FORWARDCS+) before a painful unconditioned stimulus (US), another stimulus (BACKWARDCS+) after the painful US, and a third stimulus (CS−) was never associated with the US. In Study 1, FORWARDCS+ predicted half of the USs while the other half was delivered unwarned and followed by BACKWARDCS+. In Study 2, all USs were predicted by FORWARDCS+ and followed by BACKWARDCS+. In Study 1 both FORWARDCS+ and BACKWARDCS+ were rated as negatively valenced and high arousing after conditioning, while BACKWARDCS+ in Study 2 acquired positive valence and low arousal. Startle amplitude was significantly attenuated to BACKWARDCS+ compared to FORWARDCS+ in Study 2, but did not differ among CSs in Study 1. In summary, predictability of aversive events reverses the explicit valence of a relief-associated stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Andreatta
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg Würzburg, Germany
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Translational value of startle modulations. Cell Tissue Res 2013; 354:287-95. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-013-1599-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Goepfrich AA, Gluch C, Friemel CM, Schneider M. Behavioral differences in three Wistar Han rat lines for emotional reactivity, cognitive processing and ethanol intake. Physiol Behav 2013; 110-111:102-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 12/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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12
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Brand T, Spanagel R, Schneider M. Decreased reward sensitivity in rats from the Fischer344 strain compared to Wistar rats is paralleled by differences in endocannabinoid signaling. PLoS One 2012; 7:e31169. [PMID: 22347447 PMCID: PMC3275578 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2011] [Accepted: 01/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of the present study was to examine if differences in the endocannabinoid (ECB) system might be linked to strain specific variations in reward-related behavior in Fischer344 (Fischer) and Wistar rats. Methodology/Principal Findings Two rat strains, the Fischer and the Wistar strain, were tested for different aspects of reward sensitivity for a palatable food reward (sweetened condensed milk, SCM) in a limited-access intake test, a progressive ratio (PR) schedule and the pleasure-attenuated startle (PAS) paradigm. Additionally, basic differences in the ECB system and cannabinoid pharmacology were examined in both rat strains. Fischer rats were found to express lower reward sensitivity towards SCM compared to Wistar rats. These differences were observed for consummatory, motivational and hedonic aspects of the palatable food reward. Western blot analysis for the CB1 receptor and the ECB degrading enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) revealed a lower expression of both proteins in the hippocampus (HPC) of Fischer rats compared to the Wistar strain. Furthermore, increased cannabinoid-stimulated extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation was detected in Wistar rats compared to the Fischer strain, indicating alterations in ECB signaling. These findings were further supported by the pharmacological results, where Fischer rats were found to be less sensitive towards the effects of the CB1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist SR141716 and the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2. Conclusions/Significance Our present findings indicate differences in the expression of the CB1 receptor and FAAH, as well as the activation of ECB signaling pathways between Fischer and Wistar rats. These basic differences in the ECB system might contribute to the pronounced differences observed in reward sensitivity between both rat strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Brand
- Research Group Developmental Neuropsychopharmacology, Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rainer Spanagel
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Miriam Schneider
- Research Group Developmental Neuropsychopharmacology, Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Fear relief-toward a new conceptual frame work and what endocannabinoids gotta do with it. Neuroscience 2011; 204:159-85. [PMID: 22173015 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.11.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid system seems to play very specific roles in fear extinction, which can only be described within a well-defined model of the various fear relief processes. We, therefore, seek to clarify the current conceptual framework of fear relief within classical and operant fear conditioning paradigms as well as propose new clarifications within this framework where necessary. Based on these revisions as well as previous research involving the endocannabinoid system and fear relief, we are able to pinpoint the processes in which endocannabinoids seem to play a significant role. Following auditory-cued fear conditioning, this applies in particular to habituation and its involvement in acute and long-lasting fear relief. Following contextual conditioning, in contrast, endocannabinoids seem to affect relearning processes as well. Furthermore, we describe how the involvement of the endocannabinoid system develops over the course of the fear relief process and what this may imply for the clinical use of pharmacotherapies targeting the endocannabinoid system in treating fear and anxiety disorders.
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Abstract
Fully-fledged affective systems in mature animals are in part the result of the impact of infantile experience on brain development. The present experimental series examines whether tactile stimulation in infancy (early handling) influences rough-and-tumble play (R&T) throughout the juvenile period, using a testing regime of 17 days divided into five parts where handled (H) and nonhandled (NH) Wistar rats are assessed daily. In Parts 1 and 2 (age range at the start: 30-33 days) the objective is to study the amount of R&T that the rats are capable of exhibiting under varying lengths of social deprivation. In Part 3 (37-40 days) the objective is to determine whether familiarity with the experimental situation has independent or interactive effects with early handling. In Part 4 (40-43 days) the objective is to obtain evidence of the suppressing effects of an unexpected contextual change. In Part 5 (56-59 days) the objective is to study whether the effects of early handling can still be present at an age when R&T has practically vanished in NH rats. Results show that early handling invigorates R&T affecting pins (i.e., the most rewarding component) at the expense of dorsal contacts by enhancing play motivation in a specific manner, and that it is able to dilate the inverted-U developmental curve of this behavior, thereby providing strong evidence for a direct effect on the neuropsychological systems for play motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl Aguilar
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Campus Teatinos s/n, 29071 Málaga, Spain.
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15
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Inta D, Vogt MA, Lima-Ojeda JM, Pfeiffer N, Schneider M, Gass P. Lack of long-term behavioral alterations after early postnatal treatment with tropisetron: Implications for developmental psychobiology. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 99:35-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2011] [Accepted: 03/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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16
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Runke D, McIntyre DC, St-Onge V, Gilby KL. Relation between startle reactivity and sucrose avidity in two rat strains bred for differential seizure susceptibility. Exp Neurol 2011; 229:259-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2010] [Revised: 01/12/2011] [Accepted: 02/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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17
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Thibodeau R. Approach and withdrawal actions modulate the startle reflex independent of affective valence and muscular effort. Psychophysiology 2010; 48:1011-4. [PMID: 21631518 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01159.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The startle reflex is modulated during processing of pleasant and unpleasant affective cues. One explanation of this finding contends that approach and withdrawal motivational processes are key to explaining the effect. Undergraduates performed arm flexion and arm extension actions shown elsewhere to reliably elicit approach and withdrawal motives, respectively. Results showed that arm extension (a withdrawal action) was associated with the largest startles, followed by a neutral control action and arm flexion (an approach action). This pattern was not attributable to the subjective pleasantness or muscular effort associated with the actions. Results support motivational priming accounts of startle reflex modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Thibodeau
- Psychology Department, St. John Fisher College, Rochester, New York 14618, USA.
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18
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Friemel CM, Spanagel R, Schneider M. Reward sensitivity for a palatable food reward peaks during pubertal developmental in rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2010; 4. [PMID: 20700386 PMCID: PMC2914567 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2010] [Accepted: 06/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Puberty is a critical period for the initiation of drug use and abuse. Because early drug use onset often accounts for a more severe progression of addiction, it is of importance to understand the underlying mechanisms and neurodevelopmental changes during puberty that are contributing to enhanced reward processing in teenagers. The present study investigated the progression of reward sensitivity toward a natural food reward over the whole course of adolescence in male rats (postnatal days 30-90) by monitoring consummatory, motivational behavior and neurobiological correlates of reward. Using a limited-free intake paradigm, consumption of sweetened condensed milk (SCM) was measured repeatedly in adolescent and adult rats. Additionally, early- and mid-pubertal animals were tested in Progressive Ratio responding for SCM and c-fos protein expression in reward-associated brain structures was examined after odor conditioning for SCM. We found a transient increase in SCM consumption and motivational incentive for SCM during puberty. This increased reward sensitivity was most pronounced around mid-puberty. The behavioral findings are paralleled by enhanced c-fos staining in reward-related structures revealing an intensified neuronal response after reward-cue presentation, distinctive for pubertal animals. Taken together, these data indicate an increase in reward sensitivity during adolescence accompanied by enhanced responsiveness of reward-associated brain structures to incentive stimuli, and it seems that both is strongly pronounced around mid-puberty. Therefore, higher reward sensitivity during pubertal maturation might contribute to the enhanced vulnerability of teenagers for the initiation of experimental drug use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris M Friemel
- Department of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Heidelberg University Mannheim, Germany
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19
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Bijlsma EY, Olivier B, Groenink L. Cocaine-induced changes in affective state modulate the light-enhanced startle response. Behav Brain Res 2010; 213:117-20. [PMID: 20412821 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2010] [Revised: 04/12/2010] [Accepted: 04/13/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
In order to evaluate the influence of changes in affective state on light-enhanced startle, the effects of positive affect, induced by acute cocaine administration, and the effect of negative affect, induced by spontaneous cocaine withdrawal-induced anxiety, were studied. Acute cocaine administration decreased LES, whereas withdrawal from chronic cocaine administration exacerbated LES 24h after withdrawal, an effect indicative of increased anxiety. This exacerbated LES was reduced, but not back to normal, 4 days after withdrawal. The finding that both cocaine-induced positive and negative affect can be detected in LES, suggests that this may be a valuable tool in studying affect regulation in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Y Bijlsma
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences and, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Sorbonnelaan 16, 3584 CA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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20
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Differential involvement of the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone in motivational and hedonic aspects of reward. Behav Brain Res 2010; 208:466-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2009.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2009] [Revised: 12/10/2009] [Accepted: 12/14/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Heilig M, Egli M, Crabbe JC, Becker HC. Acute withdrawal, protracted abstinence and negative affect in alcoholism: are they linked? Addict Biol 2010; 15:169-84. [PMID: 20148778 PMCID: PMC3268458 DOI: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2009.00194.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The role of withdrawal-related phenomena in the development and maintenance of alcohol addiction remains under debate. A 'self-medication' framework postulates that emotional changes are induced by a history of alcohol use, persist into abstinence, and are a major factor in maintaining alcoholism. This view initially focused on negative emotional states during early withdrawal: these are pronounced, occur in the vast majority of alcohol-dependent patients, and are characterized by depressed mood and elevated anxiety. This concept lost popularity with the realization that in most patients, these symptoms abate over 3-6 weeks of abstinence, while relapse risk persists long beyond this period. More recently, animal data have established that a prolonged history of alcohol dependence induces more subtle neuroadaptations. These confer altered emotional processing that persists long into protracted abstinence. The resulting behavioral phenotype is characterized by excessive voluntary alcohol intake and increased behavioral sensitivity to stress. Emerging human data support the clinical relevance of negative emotionality for protracted abstinence and relapse. These developments prompt a series of research questions: (1) are processes observed during acute withdrawal, while transient in nature, mechanistically related to those that remain during protracted abstinence?; (2) is susceptibility to negative emotionality in acute withdrawal in part due to heritable factors, similar to what animal models have indicated for susceptibility to physical aspects of withdrawal?; and (3) to what extent is susceptibility to negative affect that persists into protracted abstinence heritable?
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Heilig
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Andreatta M, Mühlberger A, Yarali A, Gerber B, Pauli P. A rift between implicit and explicit conditioned valence in human pain relief learning. Proc Biol Sci 2010; 277:2411-6. [PMID: 20356893 PMCID: PMC2894900 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.0103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain is aversive, but does the cessation of pain ('relief') have a reward-like effect? Indeed, fruitflies avoid an odour previously presented before a painful event, but approach an odour previously presented after a painful event. Thus, event-timing may turn punishment to reward. However, is event-timing also crucial in humans who can have explicit cognitions about associations? Here, we show that stimuli associated with pain-relief acquire positive implicit valence but are explicitly rated as aversive. Specifically, the startle response, an evolutionarily conserved defence reflex, is attenuated by stimuli that had previously followed a painful event, indicating implicit positive valence of the conditioned stimulus; nevertheless, participants explicitly evaluate these stimuli as 'emotionally negative'. These results demonstrate a rift between the implicit and explicit conditioned valence induced by pain relief. They might explain why humans in some cases are attracted by conditioned stimuli despite explicitly judging them as negative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Andreatta
- Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
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Enkel T, Spanagel R, Vollmayr B, Schneider M. Stress triggers anhedonia in rats bred for learned helplessness. Behav Brain Res 2010; 209:183-6. [PMID: 20122969 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2009] [Revised: 01/22/2010] [Accepted: 01/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Congenitally helpless (cLH) rats, a well-accepted model for depression, show reduced consumption of sweet solutions only under single-housing conditions, indicating anhedonia under stress. We investigated if anhedonic-like behaviour, measured by a reduction of sweetened-condensed milk (SCM) intake and the pleasure-attenuated startle response (PAS), could be induced by an electric foot-shock stress challenge in group-housed rats. After foot-shock stress, reduced SCM intake was observed in cLH rats compared to non-helpless (cNLH) rats. Furthermore, cLH rats also showed a decreased PAS, indicating deficient reward perception. In summary, we demonstrate that a predisposition for learned helplessness interacts with stress to trigger anhedonic-like behaviour in cLH rats. These findings further add to the validity of congenitally learned helplessness as an animal model of depression, since gene-environment interactions are considered to play a role in the etiology of this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Enkel
- Dept. of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, University of Heidelberg, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
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