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Hausberger M, Lesimple C, Henry S. Detecting Welfare in a Non-Verbal Species: Social/Cultural Biases and Difficulties in Horse Welfare Assessment. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082249. [PMID: 34438708 PMCID: PMC8388525 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 07/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary There is a paradox about the welfare of horses in the domestic situation: on the one hand, horses are beloved partners for most owners, but on the other hand, scientific studies are converging to show that there is a high prevalence of welfare problems. There seems to be a mismatch between theoretical knowledge and field applications. In this review, we aim at disentangling the possible factors explaining such a paradox. Among them, we consider the impact of anthropomorphic and cultural biases, popular beliefs, but also overexposure to horses with compromised welfare state, which can change owners’ representation of what is a “normal” horse, on the undervaluation of horse welfare state. We suggest that, rather than simply having knowledge on what should be done, identifying the horse welfare state using validated animal-based indicators is essential to identify and promote best practices. Abstract Horses were domesticated for more than 5000 years and have been one of the most emblematic species living alongside humans. This long-shared history would suggest that horses are well known and well understood, but scientific data raise many concerns about the welfare state of most domestic horses suggesting that many aspects have been largely misunderstood. In the present review, we will examine some of the possible human factors that may explain the huge prevalence of welfare problems, despite horses being of special importance to humans. First of all, as horses are non-verbal, current management practices rely upon what one thinks is good for them, which opens the way to subjective interpretations and projections, based on one’s own subjective experience but probably still more on cultural/social norms and influences, traditions and beliefs. The lack of recognition, identification, or even the misinterpretation of signals are other potential reasons for welfare issues. Lastly, the over-exposure to animals with expressions of compromised welfare may lead to lower sensitivity of owners/professionals. That is why we lastly suggest that instead of simply providing information on what to do, we should promote validated visible indicators that leave less room for personal interpretation.
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Stomp M, d’Ingeo S, Henry S, Cousillas H, Hausberger M. Brain activity reflects (chronic) welfare state: Evidence from individual electroencephalography profiles in an animal model. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Stomp M, d’Ingeo S, Henry S, Lesimple C, Cousillas H, Hausberger M. EEG individual power profiles correlate with tension along spine in horses. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0243970. [PMID: 33315932 PMCID: PMC7735639 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Assessing chronic pain is a challenge given its subjective dimension. In humans, resting state electroencephalography (EEG) is a promising tool although the results of various studies are contradictory. Spontaneous chronic pain is understudied in animals but could be of the highest interest for a comparative study. Riding horses show a very high prevalence of back disorders thought to be associated with chronic pain. Moreover, horses with known back problems show cognitive alterations, such as a lower attentional engagement. Therefore, we hypothesized that the individual EEG power profiles resting state (i.e. quiet standing) of different horses could reflect the state of their back, that we measured using static sEMG, a tool first promoted to assess lower back pain in human patients. Results show that 1) EEG profiles are highly stable at the intra-individual level, 2) horses with elevated back tension showed resting state EEG profiles characterized by more fast (beta and gamma) and less slow (theta and alpha) waves. The proportion of theta waves was particularly negatively correlated with muscular tension along the spine. Moreover, elevated back tension was positively correlated with the frequency of stereotypic behaviours (an "addictive- like" repetitive behavior) performed by the horses in their stall. Resting state quantitative EEG appears therefore as a very promising tool that may allow to assess individual subjective chronic pain experience, beyond more objective measures of tension. These results open new lines of research for a multi-species comparative approach and might reveal very important in the context of animal welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Stomp
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine)—UMR 6552, Paimpont, France
| | - Serenella d’Ingeo
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine)—UMR 6552, Paimpont, France
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Section of Animal Physiology and Behaviour, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Italy
| | - Séverine Henry
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine)—UMR 6552, Paimpont, France
| | - Clémence Lesimple
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine)—UMR 6552, Paimpont, France
| | - Hugo Cousillas
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine)—UMR 6552, Paimpont, France
| | - Martine Hausberger
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine)—UMR 6552, Paimpont, France
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Briefer Freymond S, Beuret S, Ruet A, Zuberbühler K, Bachmann I, Briefer E. Stereotypic behaviour in horses lowers stress but not spatial learning performance. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Henry S, Sigurjónsdóttir H, Klapper A, Joubert J, Montier G, Hausberger M. Domestic Foal Weaning: Need for Re-Thinking Breeding Practices? Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10020361. [PMID: 32102206 PMCID: PMC7070483 DOI: 10.3390/ani10020361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Artificial weaning is a standard practice known to be one of the most stressful events in a domestic foal's life. Research has mainly focused on ways to alleviate weaning stress. However, there is still a need for more detailed research on what should constitute best practices with respect to animal welfare. The aim of this review is to address this issue by examining the natural weaning process. We first provide an overview of the scientific literature on the natural temporal dynamics of the dam-offspring bond in horses: it is to be noted that the natural process of weaning is little documented, individual variations have been poorly investigated and immediate effects of weaning on the mare-foal relationship remain unexplored. To partly address these gaps, we performed a study around the weaning period on 16 mare-foal pairs kept with minimal human interference. Most foals were weaned spontaneously when 9-10 months old, with individual variations mainly due to the conception rate of mares. Natural weaning induced no stress response in either partner and was performed without clear signs of rejection by the dams either just before or after. We lastly open up the discussion on the need for rethinking weaning practices under domestic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Séverine Henry
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie Animale et Humaine)—UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France; (A.K.); (J.J.); (G.M.); (M.H.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Hrefna Sigurjónsdóttir
- Faculty of Subject Teacher Education, School of Education, University of Iceland, Stakkahlíð, R105 Reykjavík, Iceland;
| | - Aziliz Klapper
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie Animale et Humaine)—UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France; (A.K.); (J.J.); (G.M.); (M.H.)
| | - Julie Joubert
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie Animale et Humaine)—UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France; (A.K.); (J.J.); (G.M.); (M.H.)
| | - Gabrielle Montier
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie Animale et Humaine)—UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France; (A.K.); (J.J.); (G.M.); (M.H.)
| | - Martine Hausberger
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie Animale et Humaine)—UMR 6552, F-35000 Rennes, France; (A.K.); (J.J.); (G.M.); (M.H.)
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Hausberger M, Stomp M, Sankey C, Brajon S, Lunel C, Henry S. Mutual interactions between cognition and welfare: The horse as an animal model. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:540-559. [PMID: 31491471 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 08/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Research in cognitive psychology has repeatedly shown how much cognition and emotions are mutually related to one another. Psychological disorders are associated with cognitive (attention, memory and judgment) biases and chronic pain may affect attention, learning or memory. Laboratory studies have provided useful insights about the processes involved but observations about spontaneous animal models, living in different stress/welfare conditions may help understand further how cognition and welfare are interrelated in the « real world ». Domestic horses constitute such a model as they live in a variety of conditions that impact differently their welfare state. In the present review, we try and provide an overview of the scientific literature on cognition and welfare of domestic horses and their interrelationship. We address how emotions and welfare may affect cognitive processes in horses and impact the way they perceive their environment (including work). We propose new methods for assessing the relationship between welfare and cognition and open up the discussion on the evolution of the brain and the part domestication may have played.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hausberger
- CNRS, Laboratoire d'Ethologie animale et humaine, UMR6552, Université de Rennes, Université de Caen-Normandie, Campus de Beaulieu, Avenue du Général Leclerc, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France.
| | - M Stomp
- Université de Rennes, Laboratoire d'Ethologie animale et humaine, UMR 6552, CNRS, Université de Caen-Normandie, Station Biologique, 35380 Paimpont, France
| | - C Sankey
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Institut de Psychologie, Laboratoire de Psychopathologie et Processus de Santé (EA 4057), France
| | - S Brajon
- Université Laval, Départment des Sciences Animales, Ville de Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - C Lunel
- IGEPP, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Université de Rennes, Université Bretagne-Loire, Rennes, France
| | - S Henry
- Université de Rennes, Laboratoire d'Ethologie animale et humaine, UMR 6552, CNRS, Université de Caen-Normandie, Station Biologique, 35380 Paimpont, France
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Causal and functional interpretation of mu- and delta-opioid receptor profiles in mesoaccumbens and nigrostriatal pathways of an oral stereotypy phenotype. Behav Brain Res 2018; 353:108-113. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Stereotypic horses (Equus caballus) are not cognitively impaired. Anim Cogn 2018; 22:17-33. [PMID: 30328528 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-018-1217-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Stereotypies in animals are thought to arise from an interaction between genetic predisposition and sub-optimal housing conditions. In domestic horses, a well-studied stereotypy is crib-biting, an abnormal behaviour that appears to help individuals to cope with stressful situations. One prominent hypothesis states that animals affected by stereotypies are cognitively less flexible compared to healthy controls, due to sensitization of a specific brain area, the basal ganglia. The aim of this study was to test this hypothesis in crib-biting and healthy controls, using a cognitive task, reversal learning, which has been used as a diagnostic for basal ganglia dysfunction. The procedure consisted of exposing subjects to four learning tasks; first and second acquisition, and their reversals. For each task, we measured the number of trials to reach criterion and heart rate and heart-rate variability. Importantly, we did not try to prevent crib-biters from executing their stereotypic behaviour. We found that the first reversal learning task required the largest number of trials, confirming its challenging nature. Interestingly, the second reversal learning task required significantly fewer trials to reach criterion, suggesting generalisation learning. However, we did not find any performance differences across groups; both stereotypic and control animals required a similar numbers of trials and did not differ in their physiological responses. Our results thus challenge the widely held belief that crib-biting horses, and stereotypic animals more generally, are cognitively impaired. We conclude that cognitive underperformance may occur in stereotypic horses if they are prevented from crib-biting to cope with experienced stress.
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Titeux E, Gilbert C, Briand A, Cochet-Faivre N. From Feline Idiopathic Ulcerative Dermatitis to Feline Behavioral Ulcerative Dermatitis: Grooming Repetitive Behaviors Indicators of Poor Welfare in Cats. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:81. [PMID: 29713639 PMCID: PMC5911546 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Feline idiopathic head-and-neck dermatitis—also named feline idiopathic ulcerative dermatitis (IUD)—is considered as a rare skin disease of unknown origin. It is usually associated with a crusted, non-healing, self-induced ulcer occurring most commonly on the dorsal or lateral neck or between the scapula where self-grooming by scratching occurs. Usually, IUD is diagnosed after exclusion of other causes of pruritus. In feline medicine, self-induced alopecia is recognized as a behavioral disorder (abnormal repetitive behavior) due to excessive licking, which is an amplification of a normal maintenance behavior. Such repetitive behaviors, like self-induced alopecia or self-induced wounds, are named stereotypies and considered as indicators of poor welfare. The objectives of our study were to determine, first, if the repetitive behavior associated with self-induced wounds was related to a poor welfare, and, second, if improving the welfare in the cat’s environment would lead to healing, thanks to environmental enrichment. We recruited 13 cats diagnosed with IUD by a dermatologist. These cats were referred to a behaviorist for welfare evaluation. A welfare score was attributed using a new 21-point welfare scale. The median score of the 13 IUD cats was 16, while the median score of 35 healthy cats was 7 (significant difference, p < 0.001). Major modifications of the cat’s environment and the human–cat relationship were then recommended for IUD cats. Within 15 days after environment modifications, ulcerative lesions were healed and welfare scores improved significantly (median score of 6, significantly different from the score before environmental modifications), being similar to healthy cats (no significant differences). Only one cat was treated with a psychotropic drug, owners being reluctant to improve environmental modifications. These results suggest that feline IUD is a behavioral disorder indicative of poor welfare and that it requires management by behavior specialists, proposing environmental modifications. We hence propose to rename this affection to “behavioral ulcerative dermatitis,” given that welfare scores were significantly different from healthy cats, and that environmental modifications modified welfare scores and lead to successful healing in all cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Titeux
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Unité Ethologie, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Caroline Gilbert
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Unité Ethologie, Maisons-Alfort, France.,UMR 7179, CNRS/MNHN, laboratoire MECADEV, Brunoy, France
| | - Amaury Briand
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Unité Dermatologie, CHUVA, Maisons-Alfort, France.,Advetia, Paris, France
| | - Noëlle Cochet-Faivre
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Unité Dermatologie, CHUVA, Maisons-Alfort, France.,Advetia, Paris, France.,Clinique vétérinaire des Halles, Strasbourg, France
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Omidi A, Jafari R, Nazifi S, Parker MO. Potential role for selenium in the pathophysiology of crib-biting behavior in horses. J Vet Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2017.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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11
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Pawluski J, Jego P, Henry S, Bruchet A, Palme R, Coste C, Hausberger M. Low plasma cortisol and fecal cortisol metabolite measures as indicators of compromised welfare in domestic horses (Equus caballus). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0182257. [PMID: 28886020 PMCID: PMC5590897 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis response to chronic stress is far from straight forward, particularly with regards to animal welfare. There are reports of no effect as well as both decreases and increases in cortisol after chronic stressors. Therefore, the first aim of the present study was to determine how measures of compromised welfare, such as chronic pain and haematological anomalies, related to cortisol levels in domestic horses (Equus caballus). Domestic horses are an informative model to investigate the impact of chronic stress (due to environment, pain, work, housing conditions…) on the HPA axis. The second aim was to determine whether levels of fecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) may be used as an indicator of welfare measures. The present study used fifty-nine horses (44 geldings and 15 mares), from three riding centres in Brittany, France. The primary findings show that horses whose welfare was clearly compromised (as indicated by an unusual ears backward position, presence of vertebral problems or haematological anomalies, e.g. anaemia) also had lower levels of both FCM and plasma cortisol. This work extends our previous findings showing that withdrawn postures, indicators of depressive-like behavior in horses, are associated with lower plasma cortisol levels. We also found that evening plasma cortisol levels positively correlated with FCM levels in horses. Future research aims to determine the extent to which factors of influence on welfare, such as living conditions (e.g. single stalls versus group housing in pasture or paddocks), early life factors, and human interaction, act as mediators of cortisol levels in horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodi Pawluski
- Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail (Irset), U1085 INSERM, Université de Rennes 1, Rennes, France
| | - Patrick Jego
- Université de Rennes 1, UMR 6552 CNRS Ethologie Animale et Humaine, Station Biologique de Paimpont, France
| | - Séverine Henry
- Université de Rennes 1, UMR 6552 CNRS Ethologie Animale et Humaine, Station Biologique de Paimpont, France
| | - Anaelle Bruchet
- Université de Rennes 1, UMR 6552 CNRS Ethologie Animale et Humaine, Station Biologique de Paimpont, France
| | - Rupert Palme
- University of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Caroline Coste
- Université de Rennes 1, UMR 6552 CNRS Ethologie Animale et Humaine, Station Biologique de Paimpont, France
| | - Martine Hausberger
- CNRS, UMR 6552 Ethologie animale et humaine, Université de Rennes 1, Rennes, France
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Omidi A, Vakili S, Nazifi S, Parker MO. Acute-phase proteins, oxidative stress, and antioxidant defense in crib-biting horses. J Vet Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2016.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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13
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Williams J, Randle H. Is the expression of stereotypic behavior a performance-limiting factor in animals? J Vet Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2017.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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McBride SD, Parker MO, Roberts K, Hemmings A. Applied neurophysiology of the horse; implications for training, husbandry and welfare. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Roberts K, Hemmings AJ, McBride SD, Parker MO. Developing a 3-choice serial reaction time task for examining neural and cognitive function in an equine model. J Neurosci Methods 2017; 292:45-52. [PMID: 28179180 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2017.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Large animal models of human neurological disorders are advantageous compared to rodent models due to their neuroanatomical complexity, longevity and their ability to be maintained in naturalised environments. Some large animal models spontaneously develop behaviours that closely resemble the symptoms of neural and psychiatric disorders. The horse is an example of this; the domestic form of this species consistently develops spontaneous stereotypic behaviours akin to the compulsive and impulsive behaviours observed in human neurological disorders such as Tourette's syndrome. The ability to non-invasively probe normal and abnormal equine brain function through cognitive testing may provide an extremely useful methodological tool to assess brain changes associated with certain human neurological and psychiatric conditions. NEW METHOD An automated operant system with the ability to present visual and auditory stimuli as well as dispense salient food reward was developed. To validate the system, ten horses were trained and tested using a standard cognitive task (three choice serial reaction time task (3-CSRTT)). RESULTS All animals achieved total learning criterion and performed six probe sessions. Learning criterion was met within 16.30±0.79 sessions over a three day period. During six probe sessions, level of performance was maintained at 80.67±0.57% (mean±SEM) accuracy. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD(S) This is the first mobile fully automated system developed to examine cognitive function in the horse. CONCLUSIONS A fully-automated operant system for mobile cognitive function of a large animal model has been designed and validated. Horses pose an interesting complementary model to rodents for the examination of human neurological dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty Roberts
- Royal Agricultural University, Stroud Road, Cirencester, Gloucestershire GL7 6JS, United Kingdom.
| | - Andrew J Hemmings
- Royal Agricultural University, Stroud Road, Cirencester, Gloucestershire GL7 6JS, United Kingdom
| | - Sebastian D McBride
- Aberystwyth University, Penglais, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion SY23 3DA, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew O Parker
- School of Health Sciences and Social Work, University of Portsmouth, James Watson West Building, 2 King Richard 1 st Road, Portsmouth, Hampshire PO1 2FR, United Kingdom
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The Contribution of Equitation Science to Minimising Horse-Related Risks to Humans. Animals (Basel) 2016; 6:ani6030015. [PMID: 26907354 PMCID: PMC4810043 DOI: 10.3390/ani6030015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Equitation science is an evidence-based approach to horse training and riding that focuses on a thorough understanding of both equine ethology and learning theory. This combination leads to more effective horse training, but also plays a role in keeping horse riders and trainers safe around horses. Equitation science underpins ethical equitation, and recognises the limits of the horse's cognitive and physical abilities. Equitation is an ancient practice that has benefited from a rich tradition that sees it flourishing in contemporary sporting pursuits. Despite its history, horse-riding is an activity for which neither horses nor humans evolved, and it brings with it significant risks to the safety of both species. This review outlines the reasons horses may behave in ways that endanger humans and how training choices can exacerbate this. It then discusses the recently introduced 10 Principles of Equitation Science and explains how following these principles can minimise horse-related risk to humans and enhance horse welfare.
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Franchi V, Aleuy OA, Tadich TA. Fur chewing and other abnormal repetitive behaviors in chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera), under commercial fur-farming conditions. J Vet Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Pierard M, Hall C, König von Borstel U, Averis A, Hawson L, McLean A, Nevison C, Visser K, McGreevy P. Evolving protocols for research in equitation science. J Vet Behav 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2015.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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22
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McBride SD, Parker MO. The disrupted basal ganglia and behavioural control: an integrative cross-domain perspective of spontaneous stereotypy. Behav Brain Res 2014; 276:45-58. [PMID: 25052167 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.05.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneous stereotypic behaviour (SB) is common in many captive animal species, as well as in humans with some severe psychiatric disorders, and is often cited as being related to general basal ganglia dysfunction. Despite this assertion, there is little in the literature examining SB specifically in terms of the basal ganglia mechanics. In this review, we attempt to fill this gap by offering an integrative, cross-domain perspective of SB by linking what we currently understand about the SB phenotype with the ever-growing literature on the anatomy and functionality of the basal ganglia. After outlining current models of SB from different theoretical perspectives, we offer a broad but detailed overview of normally functioning basal ganglia mechanics, and attempt to link this with current neurophysiological evidence related to spontaneous SB. Based on this we present an empirically derived theoretical framework, which proposes that SB is the result of a dysfunctional action selection system that may reflect dysregulation of excitatory (direct) and inhibitory (indirect and hyperdirect) pathways as well as alterations in mechanisms of behavioural switching. This approach also suggests behaviours that specifically become stereotypic may reflect inbuilt low selection threshold behavioural sequences associated with early development and the species-specific ethogram or, low threshold behavioural sequences that are the result of stress-induced dopamine exposure at the time of performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian D McBride
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Matthew O Parker
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK.
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Association between increased behavioral persistence and stereotypy in the pet dog. Behav Processes 2014; 106:77-81. [PMID: 24814910 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2013] [Revised: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether dogs that exhibit stereotypy also show higher behavioral persistence in an extinction-learning task. Thirteen pet dogs with stereotypy and 13 breed-matched control dogs were assessed on a resistance to extinction test. Each dog was trained for 40 trials using a food reinforcer to nose-touch the experimenter's hand on a continuous reinforcement schedule. After acquisition, the dogs entered an extinction phase, during which food was no longer delivered. The numbers of nose-touches as well as inter-response times during this phase were recorded. A linear regression found that stereotypy status (t=-2.46, P=.027) and breed type (t=2.44, P=.023) were significant predictors of the number of responses in extinction. Dogs with stereotypy responded more in extinction than control dogs. The mean number of responses was 13.4 (SD=14.7) in the control group and 26.0 (SD=15.3) in the stereotypy group. These results suggest a link between previous laboratory and zoo animal findings on the neurophysiology of stereotypy and the pet dog population. They also have implications for the use of extinction procedures to reduce stereotypic behaviors in pet dogs, as these dogs show enhanced resistance to extinction.
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Kuhne F, Sauerbrey AF, Adler S. The discrimination-learning task determines the kind of frustration-related behaviours in laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Appl Anim Behav Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Sarrafchi A, Blokhuis HJ. Equine stereotypic behaviors: Causation, occurrence, and prevention. J Vet Behav 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2013.04.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Ijichi CL, Collins LM, Elwood RW. Evidence for the role of personality in stereotypy predisposition. Anim Behav 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Fureix C, Benhajali H, Henry S, Bruchet A, Prunier A, Ezzaouia M, Coste C, Hausberger M, Palme R, Jego P. Plasma cortisol and faecal cortisol metabolites concentrations in stereotypic and non-stereotypic horses: do stereotypic horses cope better with poor environmental conditions? BMC Vet Res 2013; 9:3. [PMID: 23289406 PMCID: PMC3544618 DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-9-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Stereotypic behaviours, i.e. repetitive behaviours induced by frustration, repeated attempts to cope and/or brain dysfunction, are intriguing as they occur in a variety of domestic and captive species without any clear adaptive function. Among the different hypotheses, the coping hypothesis predicts that stereotypic behaviours provide a way for animals in unfavourable environmental conditions to adjust. As such, they are expected to have a lower physiological stress level (glucocorticoids) than non-stereotypic animals. Attempts to link stereotypic behaviours with glucocorticoids however have yielded contradictory results. Here we investigated correlates of oral and motor stereotypic behaviours and glucocorticoid levels in two large samples of domestic horses (NStudy1 = 55, NStudy2 = 58), kept in sub-optimal conditions (e.g. confinement, social isolation), and already known to experience poor welfare states. Each horse was observed in its box using focal sampling (study 1) and instantaneous scan sampling (study 2). Plasma samples (collected in study 1) but also non-invasive faecal samples (collected in both studies) were retrieved in order to assess cortisol levels. Results Results showed that 1) plasma cortisol and faecal cortisol metabolites concentrations did not differ between horses displaying stereotypic behaviours and non-stereotypic horses and 2) both oral and motor stereotypic behaviour levels did not predict plasma cortisol or faecal cortisol metabolites concentrations. Conclusions Cortisol measures, collected in two large samples of horses using both plasma sampling as well as faecal sampling (the latter method minimizing bias due to a non-invasive sampling procedure), therefore do not indicate that stereotypic horses cope better, at least in terms of adrenocortical activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Fureix
- Université Rennes 1 UMR CNRS 6552 Ethologie Animale et Humaine, Campus de Beaulieu bâtiment 25, 263 avenue Général Leclerc, Rennes Cedex, 35042, France.
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Environmentally enriched rearing environments reduce repetitive perseveration in caged mink, but increase spontaneous alternation. Behav Brain Res 2012; 239:177-87. [PMID: 23159704 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2012] [Revised: 11/05/2012] [Accepted: 11/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Studies spanning 15 species (including American mink, Neovison vison) demonstrate that within similarly-housed populations, individuals displaying high levels of stereotypic behaviour (SB) typically show perseverative responding (e.g. during set-shifting, or reversal/extinction learning). Similar correlations in autism and schizophrenia suggest this indicates captivity-induced cortico-striatal circuit dysfunction. However, this pattern does not prove developmental impairment: SB, perseveration and their inter-correlations also occur in normal humans. We therefore differentially-reared enriched versus non-enriched mink to investigate whether treatments that exacerbate SB correspondingly increase perseveration (Study 1). Enriched-rearing did reduce SB and perseverative response repetition (in two-choice guessing tasks), while increasing spontaneous alternation: a strategy yielding more rewards, and suggesting enhanced hippocampal development. This complements previous research demonstrating cortical/hippocampal impairments and reduced behavioural flexibility in non-enriched animals, with implications for research animals and wild animals captive-raised for reintroduction into nature. Consistent with previous data, highly stereotypic subjects repeated guessing task responses most rapidly, suggesting disinhibition during repetition. However, unexpectedly, SB and perseveration did not co-vary across individuals. We therefore suggest that behavioural changes manifest as increased perseveration are important but do not fully explain captive animals' SBs, possible reasons including the contributory role of differential motivations for underlying source behaviours. Re-analyses of old data (Study 2) confirmed that spontaneous alternation is profitable; and demonstrated that the precise methods used for quantifying perseveration and SB can modify the strength of apparent relationships between them, as can statistically controlling for feeding motivation: as predicted, partialling out motivational effects increased the variance in SB predicted by perseveration.
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McBride SD, Mills DS. Psychological factors affecting equine performance. BMC Vet Res 2012; 8:180. [PMID: 23016987 PMCID: PMC3514365 DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Accepted: 08/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
For optimal individual performance within any equestrian discipline horses must be in peak physical condition and have the correct psychological state. This review discusses the psychological factors that affect the performance of the horse and, in turn, identifies areas within the competition horse industry where current behavioral research and established behavioral modification techniques could be applied to further enhance the performance of animals. In particular, the role of affective processes underpinning temperament, mood and emotional reaction in determining discipline-specific performance is discussed. A comparison is then made between the training and the competition environment and the review completes with a discussion on how behavioral modification techniques and general husbandry can be used advantageously from a performance perspective.
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Goodwin D, McGreevy P, Waran N, McLean A. How equitation science can elucidate and refine horsemanship techniques. Vet J 2009; 181:5-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Differential place and response learning in horses displaying an oral stereotypy. Behav Brain Res 2009; 200:100-5. [PMID: 19162081 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2008] [Revised: 12/23/2008] [Accepted: 12/31/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Significant similarities exist between the neural and behavioural features of environmentally and drug-induced stereotypy. For example, exposure to dopamine agonists, such as amphetamine, induces stereotypy and causes alterations in midbrain neurophysiology similar to those observed following chronic stress. An additional behavioural feature of these neural changes in the drug-induced phenotype is an enhanced rate of switching from response-outcome (R-O) to stimulus-response (S-R) learning. The aim of the current experiment was to examine R-O and S-R learning in horses displaying environmentally induced oral stereotypies. This was achieved by employing variations of the place/response paradigm. In Experiment 1, we found that crib-biting horses displayed 'response' learning after 20 learning trials, whereas non-crib-biting controls tended to display 'place' learning throughout the experiment. In Experiment 2, we used a modified version of the procedure, in which the subjects were introduced to the maze from different start points and forced always to turn the same way. We found that the crib-biters acquired the task at a faster rate suggesting again that this group was displaying 'response' learning. Finally, in Experiment 3, we carried out an arena test to ensure that crib-biters were capable of 'place' learning. These results are the first to show that horses displaying an oral stereotypy, a behavioural phenotype previously associated with stress-induced perturbations of the basal ganglia, preferentially use 'response' learning. The findings are discussed in relation to the search for an aetiological model of stereotypy.
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Mule cognition: a case of hybrid vigour? Anim Cogn 2008; 12:75-84. [PMID: 18636282 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-008-0172-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2008] [Revised: 05/30/2008] [Accepted: 06/05/2008] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
This study compares the behaviour of the mule (Equus asinus x Equus caballus) with that of its parent species to assess the effects of hybridization on cognition. Six mules, six ponies (E. caballus) and six donkeys (E. asinus) were given a two choice visual discrimination learning task. Each session consisted of 12 trials and pass level was reached when subjects chose the correct stimulus for at least 9 out of the 12 trials in three consecutive sessions. A record was made of how many pairs each subject learnt over 25 sessions. The mules' performance was significantly better than that of either of the parent species (Kruskal-Wallis: H(x) = 8.11, P = 0.017). They were also the only group to learn enough pairs to be able to show a successive reduction in the number of sessions required to reach criterion level. This study provides the first empirical evidence that the improved characteristics of mules may be extended from physical attributes to cognitive function.
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