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Phelps CE, Lumb BM, Donaldson LF, Robinson ES. The partial saphenous nerve injury model of pain impairs reward-related learning but not reward sensitivity or motivation. Pain 2021; 162:956-966. [PMID: 33591111 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Chronic pain is highly comorbid with affective disorders, including major depressive disorder. A core feature of major depressive disorder is a loss of interest in previously rewarding activities. Major depressive disorder is also associated with negative affective biases where cognitive processes are modulated by the affective state. Previous work from our laboratory has shown that reward-related learning and memory is impaired in rodent models of depression generated through a variety of different manipulations. This study investigated different aspects of reward-related behaviour in a rodent model of chronic pain, the partial saphenous nerve injury (PSNI). Using our reward-learning assay, an impairment in reward learning was observed with no difference in sucrose preference, consistent with a lack of effect on reward sensitivity and similar to the effects seen in depression models. In a successive negative contrast task, chronic pain was not associated with changes in motivation for reward either under normal conditions or when reward was devalued although both sham and PSNI groups exhibited the expected negative contrast effect. In the affective bias test, PSNI rats developed a positive affective bias when treated with gabapentin, an effect not seen in the controls suggesting an association with the antinociceptive effects of the drug inducing a relatively more positive affective state. Together, these data suggest that there are changes in reward-related cognition in this chronic pain model consistent with previous findings in rodent models of depression. The effects seen with gabapentin suggest that pain-associated negative affective state may be remediated by this atypical analgesic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline E Phelps
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- Department of Pharmacology, Arizona Health Sciences Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Bridget M Lumb
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Lucy F Donaldson
- School of Life Sciences and Arthritis Research UK Pain Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Emma S Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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2
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Neave HW, Webster JR, Zobel G. Anticipatory behaviour as an indicator of the welfare of dairy calves in different housing environments. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0245742. [PMID: 33471865 PMCID: PMC7816972 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Anticipatory behaviour occurs in the period before a reward or other positive event is presented and has been interpreted as an indicator of the welfare and emotional state of animals. The use of this indicator has received limited attention in dairy calves. Therefore, we investigated how anticipatory behaviour is affected by housing environment and reward quality, and if anticipatory behaviour changes when reward quality changes unexpectedly. Sixteen pairs of calves were assigned to treatments in a 2 x 2 factorial design (two housing environment and two reward quality combinations). Housing was either basic (2 m2/calf, river stone surface) or enriched (5 m2/calf, woodchip, and enrichment items), and the reward was access to either an additional basic or enriched pen. Calves were conditioned to anticipate reward pen access; anticipatory behaviour toward receiving the reward pen was measured. Signaling reward access increased the frequency of transitions between behaviours and duration of touching and looking at the signal and exit door. Basic-housed calves showed more anticipatory behaviour (increased frequency of transitions between behaviours) and decreased latency to access the reward compared to enriched-housed calves, but the reward pen quality had no effect on anticipatory behaviour. When the reward pen quality changed from enriched to basic unexpectedly, resulting in sudden reward loss, basic-housed calves decreased, while enriched-housed calves increased, anticipatory behaviour. However, there was no change in anticipatory behaviour during reward gain (change from basic to enriched reward pen). Our findings align with previous work showing that animals in basic housing show more anticipation for a reward, and demonstrate suppressed behavioural response when experiencing reward loss, suggesting greater sensitivity to reward. Sensitivity to reward has associations with mood state; thus, calves in basic environments may experience a more negative emotional state, and thus reduced welfare, compared to calves in enriched environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather W. Neave
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare, AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, New Zealand
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
| | - James R. Webster
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare, AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Gosia Zobel
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare, AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, New Zealand
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3
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Clarkson JM, Leach MC, Flecknell PA, Rowe C. Negative mood affects the expression of negative but not positive emotions in mice. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201636. [PMID: 32842924 PMCID: PMC7482280 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Whether and to what extent animals experience emotions is crucial for understanding their decisions and behaviour, and underpins a range of scientific fields, including animal behaviour, neuroscience, evolutionary biology and animal welfare science. However, research has predominantly focused on alleviating negative emotions in animals, with the expression of positive emotions left largely unexplored. Therefore, little is known about positive emotions in animals and how their expression is mediated. We used tail handling to induce a negative mood in laboratory mice and found that while being more anxious and depressed increased their expression of a discrete negative emotion (disappointment), meaning that they were less resilient to negative events, their capacity to express a discrete positive emotion (elation) was unaffected relative to control mice. Therefore, we show not only that mice have discrete positive emotions, but that they do so regardless of their current mood state. Our findings are the first to suggest that the expression of discrete positive and negative emotions in animals is not equally affected by long-term mood state. Our results also demonstrate that repeated negative events can have a cumulative effect to reduce resilience in laboratory animals, which has significant implications for animal welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine M Clarkson
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Matthew C Leach
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Paul A Flecknell
- Comparative Biology Centre, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
| | - Candy Rowe
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
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4
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Yates JR, Ellis AL, Evans KE, Kappesser JL, Lilly KM, Mbambu P, Sutphin TG. Pair housing, but not using a controlled reinforcer frequency procedure, attenuates the modulatory effect of probability presentation order on amphetamine-induced changes in risky choice. Behav Brain Res 2020; 390:112669. [PMID: 32417278 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Probability discounting is often measured with independent schedules. Independent schedules have several limitations, such as confounding preference for one alternative with frequency of reward presentation and generating ceiling/floor effects at certain probabilities. To address this potential caveat, a controlled reinforcer frequency schedule can be used, in which the manipulandum that leads to reinforcement is pseudo-randomly determined before each trial. This schedule ensures subjects receive equal presentations of the small and large magnitude reinforcers across each block of trials. A total of 24 pair-housed and 11 individually housed female Sprague Dawley rats were tested in a controlled reinforcer frequency procedure. For half of the rats, the odds against (OA) receiving the large magnitude reinforcer increased across the session (ascending schedule); the OA decreased across the session for half of the rats (descending schedule). Following training, rats received treatments of amphetamine (AMPH; 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 mg/kg; s.c.). For pair-housed rats, AMPH (0.5 mg/kg) increased risky choice, regardless of probability presentation order, whereas a higher dose of AMPH (1.0 mg/kg) decreased discriminability of reinforcer magnitude for rats trained on the descending schedule only. For individually housed rats, probability presentation order modulated the effects of AMPH on probability discounting, as AMPH (0.25 and 0.5 mg/kg) increased risky choice in rats trained on the ascending schedule but not on the descending schedule. These results show that pair-housing animals, but not using a controlled reinforcer frequency procedure, attenuates the modulatory effects of probability presentation order on drug effects on risky choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin R Yates
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, 1 Nunn Drive, Highland Heights, KY, 41099, USA.
| | - Alexis L Ellis
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, 1 Nunn Drive, Highland Heights, KY, 41099, USA
| | - Karson E Evans
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, 1 Nunn Drive, Highland Heights, KY, 41099, USA
| | - Joy L Kappesser
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, 1 Nunn Drive, Highland Heights, KY, 41099, USA
| | - Kadyn M Lilly
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, 1 Nunn Drive, Highland Heights, KY, 41099, USA
| | - Prodiges Mbambu
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, 1 Nunn Drive, Highland Heights, KY, 41099, USA
| | - Tanner G Sutphin
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, 1 Nunn Drive, Highland Heights, KY, 41099, USA
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5
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Grimm JW, Sauter F. Environmental enrichment reduces food seeking and taking in rats: A review. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 190:172874. [PMID: 32084492 PMCID: PMC7100331 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Environmental enrichment (EE) for rodents is generally defined as providing subjects with an environment enhanced with access to conspecifics, novel and tactile stimuli, and in many preparations, more space. EE exposure, in particular as an "intervention" in adult rodents, decreases food and drug seeking and taking. This review focuses on the reduction of sucrose seeking and taking in rats assessed in operant-based procedures. The operant-based model provides a means to evaluate addiction-related behaviors. Findings using the model might translate to clinically-relevant addiction behaviors directed towards both drugs and food. Both overnight (acute) and one month (chronic) EE effects on behavior are described, including a recent evaluation of the persistence of EE effects following its removal. EE effects on neurobiology related to sucrose seeking using the model are outlined, with a special emphasis on meso-cortico-limbic terminals. Overall, our working hypothesis for how EE reduces sucrose seeking and taking is that EE alters processing of incentive valence. This may also be accompanied by changes in learning and affect. Anti-seeking and anti-taking effects of EE have translational implications for the prevention and treatment of both drug addiction and food-focused behaviors ("food addiction").
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Grimm
- Department of Psychology and Program in Behavioral Neuroscience, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, USA.
| | - Frances Sauter
- Department of Psychology and Program in Behavioral Neuroscience, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, USA
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6
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Luo L, Reimert I, Graat EAM, Smeets S, Kemp B, Bolhuis JE. Effects of early life and current housing on sensitivity to reward loss in a successive negative contrast test in pigs. Anim Cogn 2019; 23:121-130. [PMID: 31720926 PMCID: PMC6981316 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01322-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Animals in a negative affective state seem to be more sensitive to reward loss, i.e. an unexpected decrease in reward size. The aim of this study was to investigate whether early-life and current enriched vs. barren housing conditions affect the sensitivity to reward loss in pigs using a successive negative contrast test. Pigs (n = 64 from 32 pens) were housed in barren or enriched conditions from birth onwards, and at 7 weeks of age experienced either a switch in housing conditions (from barren to enriched or vice versa) or not. Allotting pigs to the different treatments was balanced for coping style (proactive vs. reactive). One pig per pen was trained to run for a large reward and one for a small reward. Reward loss was introduced for pigs receiving the large reward after 11 days (reward downshift), i.e. from then onwards, they received the small reward. Pigs housed in barren conditions throughout life generally had a lower probability and higher latency to get the reward than other pigs. Proactive pigs ran overall slower than reactive pigs. After the reward downshift, all pigs ran slower. Nevertheless, reward downshift increased the latency and reduced the probability to get to the reward, but only in pigs exposed to barren conditions in early life, which thus were more sensitive to reward loss than pigs from enriched early life housing. In conclusion, barren housed pigs seemed overall less motivated for the reward, and early life housing conditions had long-term effects on the sensitivity to reward loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Luo
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - I Reimert
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - E A M Graat
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - S Smeets
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - B Kemp
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - J E Bolhuis
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 338, 6700 AH, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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7
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Luo L, Reimert I, de Haas EN, Kemp B, Bolhuis JE. Effects of early and later life environmental enrichment and personality on attention bias in pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus). Anim Cogn 2019; 22:959-972. [PMID: 31250144 PMCID: PMC6834757 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01287-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We investigated effects of early and later life housing on attention bias, as an indicator of affective state, in pigs differing in coping style [reactive (LR) vs. proactive (HR)]. Pigs (n = 128) in barren or enriched housing from birth (B1 vs. E1) that experienced either a switch in housing at 7 weeks of age or not (creating B1B2, B1E2, E1E2, and E1B2 treatments), were studied in a 180-s attention bias test at 11 weeks. Pigs exposed to a 10-s-auditory-and-sudden-motion threat in the test arena paid more attention to the location of the threat, were more vigilant, showed less eating, more walking and were more likely to utter high-pitched vocalisations than non-threat pigs. During threat presence, HR pigs from post-switch enriched housing (E2-HR, i.e., B1E2 + E1E2) showed more vigilance but less exploration than others. After threat removal, no effects were found on time spent paying attention to the threat, vigilance, and eating, but E2-HR pigs paid attention to the threat more frequently, were more likely to utter high-pitched vocalisations and walked more compared to (part of) other groups, suggesting the most negative affective state in these animals. E2 pigs grunted more than B2 pigs. Thus, current housing, but not early life housing, affected behaviour in a personality-dependent manner in this attention bias test. Housing effects were opposite to expectation, possibly due to the short-term effect of the relative contrast between the home pens of the pigs and the test room. This potentially overruled putative long-term effects of environmental conditions on attention bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Luo
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Inonge Reimert
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elske N de Haas
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Animals in Science and Society, Utrecht University, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bas Kemp
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - J Elizabeth Bolhuis
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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8
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Ellis SLH, Riemer S, Thompson H, Burman OHP. Assessing the External Validity of Successive Negative Contrast - Implications for Animal Welfare. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2019; 23:54-61. [PMID: 30694088 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2019.1572509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
When unexpectedly switched from a preferred to a less-preferred food reward, non-human animals may decrease consumption below that when only receiving the less-preferred reward - a successive negative contrast (SNC) effect. SNC has been proposed as an animal welfare indicator, however, to be effective it should show external validity; being demonstrable outside of highly standardized laboratory settings. We therefore investigated whether the SNC effect typically shown in laboratory rats was observed in owned (pet) rats from heterogeneous non-laboratory environments. Subjects (N = 14) were tested in a consummatory SNC paradigm with solid food rewards. "Shifted" rats received a high-value reward for 10 days (pre-shift), a low-value reward for six days (post-shift), then one additional day of high-value reward (re-shift). "Unshifted" rats always received the same low-value reward. "Shifted" rats consumed more food during pre-shift and re-shift trials, but ate less of the low-value food than "unshifted" animals in the post-shift trials - a SNC effect. This confirms the external validity of the SNC paradigm, extending reproducibility to outside the laboratory, indicating translatability across contexts, thus enhancing its potential use as a welfare indicator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L H Ellis
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
| | - Stefanie Riemer
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK.,Division of Animal Welfare, VPH Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hannah Thompson
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
| | - Oliver H P Burman
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
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9
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Abstract
Characterized by the switch of manic and depressive phases, bipolar disorder was described as early as the fifth century BC. Nevertheless up to date, the underlying neurobiology is still largely unclear, assuming a multifactor genesis with both biological-genetic and psychosocial factors. Significant process has been achieved in recent years in researching the causes of bipolar disorder with modern molecular biological (e.g., genetic and epigenetic studies) and imaging techniques (e.g., positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)). In this chapter we will first summarize our recent knowledge on the etiology of bipolar disorder. We then discuss how several factors observed to contribute to bipolar disorder in human patients can be manipulated to generate rodent models for bipolar disorder. Finally, we will give an overview on behavioral test that can be used to assess bipolar-disorder-like behavior in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadja Freund
- Division of Experimental and Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Preventive Medicine, LWL University Hospital, Ruhr-University, Bochum, Germany.
| | - Georg Juckel
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Preventive Medicine, LWL University Hospital, Ruhr-University, Bochum, Germany
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10
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Riemer S, Thompson H, Burman OHP. Behavioural responses to unexpected changes in reward quality. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16652. [PMID: 30413798 PMCID: PMC6226435 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35056-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Successive negative contrast (SNC) effects are changes in anticipatory or consummatory behaviour when animals unexpectedly receive a lower value reward than they have received previously. SNC effects are often assumed to reflect frustration and appear to be influenced by background affective state. However, alternative explanations of SNC, such as the functional-search hypothesis, do not necessarily imply an aversive affective state. We tested 18 dogs in a SNC paradigm using a patch foraging task. Dogs were tested in two conditions, once with the low value reward in all of five trials (unshifted) and once when reward value was altered between high and low (shifted). Following a reward downshift, subjects showed a SNC effect by switching significantly more often between patches compared to the unshifted condition. However, approach latency, foraging time and quantity consumed did not differ between conditions, suggesting non-affective functional search behaviour rather than frustration. There was no relationship between strength of SNC and anxiety-related behaviours as measured in a novel object test and a personality questionnaire (C-BARQ). However, associations with the C-BARQ scores for Trainability and Stranger directed aggression suggest a possible link with behavioural flexibility and coping style. While reward quality clearly affects incentive motivation, the relationship between SNC, frustration and background affective state requires further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Riemer
- Division of Animal Welfare, VPH Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Längassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - Hannah Thompson
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, LN6 7DL, UK
| | - Oliver H P Burman
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, LN6 7DL, UK.
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11
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A reappraisal of successive negative contrast in two populations of domestic dogs. Anim Cogn 2016; 19:471-81. [PMID: 26742929 PMCID: PMC4824810 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-015-0947-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
When an anticipated food reward is unexpectedly reduced in quality or quantity, many mammals show a successive negative contrast (SNC) effect, i.e. a reduction in instrumental or consummatory responses below the level shown by control animals that have only ever received the lower-value reward. SNC effects are believed to reflect an aversive emotional state, caused by the discrepancy between the expected and the actual reward. Furthermore, how animals respond to such discrepancy has been suggested to be a sign of animals’ background mood state. However, the occurrence and interpretation of SNC effects are not unequivocal, and there is a relative lack of studies conducted outside of laboratory conditions. Here, we tested two populations of domestic dogs (24 owned pet dogs and 21 dogs from rescue kennels) in a SNC paradigm following the methodology by Bentosela et al. (J Comp Psychol 123:125–130, 2009), using a design that allowed a within-, as well as a between-, subjects analysis. We found no evidence of a SNC effect in either population using a within- or between-subjects design. Indeed, the within-subjects analysis revealed a reverse SNC effect, with subjects in the shifted condition showing a significantly higher level of response, even after they received an unexpected reduction in reward quality. Using a within-, rather than a between-, subjects design may be beneficial in studies of SNC due to higher sensitivity and statistical power; however, order effects on subject performance need to be considered. These results suggest that this particular SNC paradigm may not be sufficiently robust to replicate easily in a range of environmental contexts and populations.
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12
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Grimberg-Henrici CGE, Vermaak P, Bolhuis JE, Nordquist RE, van der Staay FJ. Effects of environmental enrichment on cognitive performance of pigs in a spatial holeboard discrimination task. Anim Cogn 2015; 19:271-83. [PMID: 26520648 PMCID: PMC4751158 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-015-0932-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of environmental enrichment on the cognitive performance of female conventional farm (growing) pigs in a spatial holeboard task. Ten pairs of littermates matched for weight were used. From each litter, one piglet was randomly assigned to a barren environment; the other was assigned to an enriched environment from 4 weeks of age. The enriched environment was double the size of the barren environment, had a floor covered with straw, a rooting area filled with peat, and one of the four different enrichment toys which were exchanged daily. Starting at 11 weeks of age, all pigs were tested in a spatial holeboard discrimination task in which 4 out of 16 holes were baited. Furthermore, basal salivary cortisol levels of all pigs were determined after the end of all testing. All pigs were able to acquire the pattern of baited holes (acquisition phase, 40 trials) and the diagonally mirrored pattern (reversal phase, 20 trials). During the acquisition phase, the reference memory performance of the enriched-housed pigs was better than that of their barren-housed littermates, i.e. they reduced visits to the unbaited set of holes. During the reversal phase, enriched-housed pigs had a better general working memory performance than the barren-housed pigs as indicated by reduced revisits to holes already visited during a trial, irrespective of whether they were of the baited or the unbaited set. The enriched-housed pigs also searched for the hidden bait faster during both phases. The environments did not affect basal salivary cortisol levels. In conclusion, environmental enrichment slightly improved the cognitive performance of pigs in a spatial learning task. We hypothesise that the long period of habituation to and testing in the holeboard acted as enrichment that partially reduced the effects of barren housing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte G E Grimberg-Henrici
- Emotion and Cognition Group, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. .,Institute of Animal Breeding and Husbandry, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Paul Vermaak
- Applied Biology, HAS, University of Applied Sciences, Den Bosch, The Netherlands
| | - J Elizabeth Bolhuis
- Adaptation Physiology Group, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rebecca E Nordquist
- Emotion and Cognition Group, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - F Josef van der Staay
- Emotion and Cognition Group, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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13
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14
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Webber ES, Chambers NE, Kostek JA, Mankin DE, Cromwell HC. Relative reward effects on operant behavior: Incentive contrast, induction and variety effects. Behav Processes 2015; 116:87-99. [PMID: 25979604 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Comparing different rewards automatically produces dynamic relative outcome effects on behavior. Each new outcome exposure is to an updated version evaluated relative to alternatives. Relative reward effects include incentive contrast, positive induction and variety effects. The present study utilized a novel behavioral design to examine relative reward effects on a chain of operant behavior using auditory cues. Incentive contrast is the most often examined effect and focuses on increases or decreases in behavioral performance after value upshifts (positive) or downshifts (negative) relative to another outcome. We examined the impact of comparing two reward outcomes in a repeated measures design with three sessions: a single outcome and a mixed outcome and a final single outcome session. Relative reward effects should be apparent when comparing trials for the identical outcome between the single and mixed session types. An auditory cue triggered a series of operant responses (nosepoke-leverpress-food retrieval), and we measured possible contrast effects for different reward magnitude combinations. We found positive contrast for trials with the greatest magnitude differential but positive induction or variety effects in other combinations. This behavioral task could be useful for analyzing environmental or neurobiological factors involved in reward comparisons, decision-making and choice during instrumental, goal-directed action.
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Affiliation(s)
- E S Webber
- Department of Psychology and J.P. Scott Center for Neuroscience, Mind and Behavior, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA
| | - N E Chambers
- Department of Psychology and J.P. Scott Center for Neuroscience, Mind and Behavior, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA
| | - J A Kostek
- Department of Psychology and J.P. Scott Center for Neuroscience, Mind and Behavior, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA
| | - D E Mankin
- Department of Psychology and J.P. Scott Center for Neuroscience, Mind and Behavior, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA
| | - H C Cromwell
- Department of Psychology and J.P. Scott Center for Neuroscience, Mind and Behavior, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA.
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15
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Psychopharmacological characterisation of the successive negative contrast effect in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:2697-709. [PMID: 25791190 PMCID: PMC4502301 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-3905-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Successive negative contrast (SNC) describes a change in the behaviour of an animal following a downshift in the quantitative or qualitative value of an expected reward. This behavioural response has been hypothesised to be linked to affective state, with negative states associated with larger and/or prolonged shifts in behaviour. OBJECTIVE This study has investigated whether different psychopharmacological treatments have dissociable actions on the SNC effect in rats and related these findings to their actions on different neurotransmitter systems and affective state. METHODS Animals were trained to perform a nose-poke response to obtain a high-value food reward (four pellets). SNC was quantified during devalue sessions in which the reward was reduced to one pellet. Using a within-subject study design, the effects of acute treatment with anxiolytic, anxiogenic, antidepressant and dopaminergic drugs were investigated during both baseline (four pellets) or devalue sessions (one pellet). RESULTS The indirect dopamine agonist, amphetamine, attenuated the SNC effect whilst the D1/D2 antagonist, alpha-flupenthixol, potentiated it. The antidepressant citalopram, anxiolytic buspirone and anxiogenic FG7142 had no specific effects on SNC, although FG7142 induced general impairments at higher doses. The α2-adrenoceptor antagonist, yohimbine, increased premature responding but had no specific effect on SNC. Results for the anxiolytic diazepam were mixed with one group showing an attenuation of the SNC effect whilst the other showed no effect. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that the SNC effect is mediated, at least in part, by dopamine signalling. The SNC effect may also be attenuated by benzodiazepine anxiolytics.
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Binkley KA, Webber ES, Powers DD, Cromwell HC. Emotion and relative reward processing: an investigation on instrumental successive negative contrast and ultrasonic vocalizations in the rat. Behav Processes 2014; 107:167-74. [PMID: 25150068 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Revised: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Incentive contrast effects include changes in behavioral responses after a reward upshift (positive contrast) or downshift (negative contrast). Proposed influences on these behavioral changes are emotional state reactions after experiencing or anticipating a change in reward outcome. Rat ultrasonic vocalizations have been shown to be indicators of emotional state during behavior and anticipatory periods. The objective of the present study was to monitor rodent ultrasounds during incentive contrast using a classical runway procedure called instrumental successive negative contrast. The procedure is one that has been used often to examine incentive relativity because of its reliability in measuring negative contrast effects. Rats were trained to run in the alleyway to receive a high (12 pellets) or low magnitude (1 pellet) outcome. The high magnitude was then shifted to the low and running speeds in the alleyway for the reward and USV emission were compared. Replicating previous work, a negative contrast effect was observed with postshift running speeds significantly slower in the shifted group compared to the unshifted group. USVs did not follow the same pattern with an apparent lack of significant differences between the groups following the reward downshift. We also tested another group of animals using a visual predictive cue in the same runway test. When visual cues predicted high or low magnitude outcome, no incentive contrast was found for the running speeds following an outcome downshift, but a weak contrast effect was observed for the USV emission. These results demonstrate a separation between USVs and behavioral indicators of incentive contrast suggesting that concomitant shifts in negative affect may not be necessary for anticipatory relative reward processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Binkley
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, United States
| | - E S Webber
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, United States
| | - D D Powers
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, United States
| | - H C Cromwell
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, United States.
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17
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Chen YW, Fiscella KA, Bacharach SZ, Calu DJ. Effect of cafeteria diet history on cue-, pellet-priming-, and stress-induced reinstatement of food seeking in female rats. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102213. [PMID: 25025329 PMCID: PMC4099011 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Relapse to unhealthy eating habits is a major problem in human dietary treatment. The individuals most commonly seeking dietary treatment are overweight or obese women, yet the commonly used rat reinstatement model to study relapse to palatable food seeking during dieting primarily uses normal-weight male rats. To increase the clinical relevance of the relapse to palatable food seeking model, here we pre-expose female rats to a calorically-dense cafeteria diet in the home-cage to make them overweight prior to examining the effect of this diet history on cue-, pellet-priming- and footshock-induced reinstatement of food seeking. METHODS Post-natal day 32 female Long-Evans rats had seven weeks of home-cage access to either chow only or daily or intermittent cafeteria diet alongside chow. Next, they were trained to self-administer normally preferred 45 mg food pellets accompanied by a tone-light cue. After extinction, all rats were tested for reinstatement induced by discrete cue, pellet-priming, and intermittent footshock under extinction conditions. RESULTS Access to daily cafeteria diet and to a lesser degree access to intermittent cafeteria diet decreased food pellet self-administration compared to chow-only. Prior history of these cafeteria diets also reduced extinction responding, cue- and pellet-priming-induced reinstatement. In contrast, modest stress-induced reinstatement was only observed in rats with a history of daily cafeteria diet. CONCLUSION A history of cafeteria diet does not increase the propensity for cue- and pellet-priming-induced relapse in the rat reinstatement model but does appear to make rats more susceptible to footshock stress-induced reinstatement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Wei Chen
- Intramural Research Program, NIDA/NIH, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kimberly A. Fiscella
- Intramural Research Program, NIDA/NIH, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Samuel Z. Bacharach
- Intramural Research Program, NIDA/NIH, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Donna J. Calu
- Intramural Research Program, NIDA/NIH, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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Vögeli S, Lutz J, Wolf M, Wechsler B, Gygax L. Valence of physical stimuli, not housing conditions, affects behaviour and frontal cortical brain activity in sheep. Behav Brain Res 2014; 267:144-55. [PMID: 24681090 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2013] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Modulation of short-term emotions by long-term mood is little understood but relevant to understand the affective system and of importance in respect to animal welfare: a negative mood might taint experiences, whilst a positive mood might alleviate single negative events. To induce different mood states in sheep housing conditions were varied. Fourteen ewes were group-housed in an unpredictable, stimulus-poor and 15 ewes in a predictable, stimulus-rich environment. Sheep were tested individually for mood in a behavioural cognitive bias paradigm. Also, their reactions to three physical stimuli thought to differ in their perceived valence were observed (negative: pricking, intermediate: slight pressure, positive: kneading). General behaviour, activity, ear movements and positions, and haemodynamic changes in the cortical brain were recorded during stimulations. Generalised mixed-effects models and model probabilities based on the BIC (Bayesian information criterion) were used. Only weak evidence for mood difference was found. Sheep from the unpredictable, stimulus-poor housing condition had a somewhat more negative cognitive bias, showed slightly more aversive behaviour, were slightly more active and moved their ears somewhat more. Sheep most clearly differentiated the negative from the intermediate and positive stimulus in that they exhibited more aversive behaviour, less nibbling, were more active, showed more ear movements, more forward ear postures, fewer backward ear postures, and a stronger decrease in deoxyhaemoglobin when subjected to the negative stimulus. In conclusion, sheep reacted towards stimuli according to their presumed valence but their mood was not strongly influenced by housing conditions. Therefore, behavioural reactions and cortical brain activity towards the stimuli were hardly modulated by housing conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Vögeli
- Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Agroscope, Institute for Livestock Sciences, Tänikon, CH-8356 Ettenhausen, Switzerland; Animal Behaviour, Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Janika Lutz
- Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Agroscope, Institute for Livestock Sciences, Tänikon, CH-8356 Ettenhausen, Switzerland; Animal Behaviour, Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin Wolf
- Biomedical Optics Research Laboratory, Division of Neonatology, University Hospital Zurich, Frauenklinikstrasse 10, CH-8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Wechsler
- Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Agroscope, Institute for Livestock Sciences, Tänikon, CH-8356 Ettenhausen, Switzerland
| | - Lorenz Gygax
- Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Agroscope, Institute for Livestock Sciences, Tänikon, CH-8356 Ettenhausen, Switzerland.
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Fawcett TW, Fallenstein B, Higginson AD, Houston AI, Mallpress DE, Trimmer PC, McNamara JM. The evolution of decision rules in complex environments. Trends Cogn Sci 2014; 18:153-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Revised: 12/21/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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