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Hinchcliffe JK, Robinson ESJ. The Affective Bias Test and Reward Learning Assay: Neuropsychological Models for Depression Research and Investigating Antidepressant Treatments in Rodents. Curr Protoc 2024; 4:e1057. [PMID: 38923877 DOI: 10.1002/cpz1.1057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
The Affective Bias Test (ABT) quantifies acute changes in affective state based on the affective biases they generate in an associative reward learning task. The Reward Learning Assay (RLA) provides a control assay for the ABT and reward-induced biases generated in this model are sensitive to changes in core affective state. Both tasks involve training animals to associate a specific digging substrate with a food reward. Animals learn to discriminate between two digging substrates placed in ceramic bowls, one rewarded and one unrewarded. In the ABT, the animal learns two independent substrate-reward associations with a fixed reward value following either an affective state or drug manipulation, or under control conditions. Affective biases generated are quantified in a choice test where the animals exhibit a bias (make more choices) for one of the substrates which is specifically related to affective state at the time of learning. The ABT is used to investigate biases generated during learning as well as modulation of biases associated with past experiences. The RLA follows a similar protocol, but the animal remains in the same affective state throughout and a reward-induced bias is generated by pairing one substrate with a higher value reward. The RLA provides a control to determine if drug treatments affect memory retrieval more generally. Studies in depression models and following environmental enrichment suggest that reward-induced biases are sensitive to core changes in affective state. Each task offers different insights into affective processing mechanisms and may help improve the translational validity of animal studies and benefit pre-clinical drug development. © 2024 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Bowl digging and discrimination training Basic Protocol 2: The reward learning assay Basic Protocol 3: The affective bias test - new learning Basic Protocol 4: The affective bias test - modulation of affective biases associated with past experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna K Hinchcliffe
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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2
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Aliphon B, Dai T, Moretti J, Penrose-Menz M, Mulders WHAM, Blache D, Rodger J. A repeated measures cognitive affective bias test in rats: comparison with forced swim test. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2023; 240:2257-2270. [PMID: 36450831 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-022-06281-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE There is an urgent need to identify behaviours in animals that can provide insight into the aetiology and potential treatment of depression in humans. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to validate a repeated measures cognitive affective bias (CAB) test in a rat model of chronic stress and compare CAB with forced swim test (FST) measures. METHODS Male and female Sprague Dawley rats were trained to associate large and small rewards with scent, spatial, and tactile cues, and their response to an ambiguous tactile stimulus tested. Rats underwent weekly CAB testing for 4 weeks with no intervention, or for 2 weeks of chronic restraint stress (CRS), followed by 2 weeks of fluoxetine, vehicle, or no treatment. CRS rats also underwent the FST at selected timepoints. RESULTS In control rats, CAB was positive and remained stable over the 4-week period. In CRS-fluoxetine and CRS-vehicle groups, CAB was initially positive, became negative during chronic restraint stress, and returned to positive by 2 weeks after treatment. However, in the CRS-no treatment group, CAB was variable at the outset and unstable over time. Behaviour in the FST was not affected by treatment, and there was no correlation between CAB and FST outcomes. CONCLUSIONS Instability in the CRS-no treatment group precluded interpretation of the impact of fluoxetine on CAB post-CRS. Our results suggest that behaviour in the FST does not reflect or alter affective state and support the use of CAB tests as part of the behavioural testing repertoire for preclinical animal models of affective disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Aliphon
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Twain Dai
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - Jessica Moretti
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Sciences, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Australia
| | - Marissa Penrose-Menz
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - Wilhelmina H A M Mulders
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Dominique Blache
- School of Agriculture and Environment, Institute of Agriculture, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - Jennifer Rodger
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia.
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Sciences, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Australia.
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Stupart O, Robbins TW, Dalley JW. "The wrong tools for the right job": a critical meta-analysis of traditional tests to assess behavioural impacts of maternal separation. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2023; 240:2239-2256. [PMID: 36418564 PMCID: PMC10593619 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-022-06275-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Unconditioned tasks in rodents have been the mainstay of behavioural assessment for decades, but their validity and sensitivity to detect the behavioural consequences of early life stress (ELS) remains contentious and highly variable. OBJECTIVES In the present study, we carried out a meta-analysis to investigate whether persistent behavioural effects, as assessed using unconditioned procedures in rats, are a reliable consequence of early repeated maternal separation, a commonly used procedure in rodents to study ELS. METHODS A literature search identified 100 studies involving maternally separated rats and the following unconditioned procedures: the elevated plus maze (EPM); open field test (OFT); sucrose preference test (SPT) and forced swim task (FST). Studies were included for analysis if the separation of offspring from the dam was at least 60 min every day during the pre-weaning period prior to the start of adolescence. RESULTS Our findings show that unconditioned tasks are generally poor at consistently demonstrating differences between control and separated groups with pooled effect sizes that were either small or non-existent (EPM: Hedge's g = - 0.35, p = 0.01, OFT: Hedge's g = - 0.32, p = 0.05, SPT: Hedge's g = - 0.33, p = 0.21, FST: Hedge's g = 0.99, p = 0.0001). Despite considerable procedural variability between studies, heterogeneity statistics were low; indicating the lack of standardization in the maternal separation protocol was the not the cause of these inconsistent effects. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that in general, unconditioned tests of depression and anxiety are not sufficient to reveal the full behavioural repertoire of maternal separation stress should not be relied upon in isolation. We argue that more objective tasks that sensitively detect specific cognitive processes are better suited for translational research on stress-related disorders such as depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Stupart
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Trevor W Robbins
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Jeffrey W Dalley
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK.
- Department of Psychiatry, Hershel Smith Building for Brain and Mind Sciences, Cambridge, CB2 OSZ, UK.
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK.
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4
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Iki S, Adachi I. Fearful snake pictures make monkeys pessimistic. iScience 2023; 26:107622. [PMID: 37664603 PMCID: PMC10474457 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Judgment bias is the cognitive tendency of animals experiencing negative (or positive) affect to expect undesirable (or favorable) outcomes in ambiguous situations. The lack of examination of judgment biases induced by ecologically relevant stimuli hampers our understanding of the adaptive role of these biases. We examined whether predator-related stimuli, i.e., pictures of snakes, induce a pessimistic judgment bias in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Our subjects underwent a touchscreen-based Go/No-go judgment bias test. We found that the subjects were less likely and slower to make Go responses to ambiguous stimuli after viewing the snake pictures, indicating that pictures of snakes induce a pessimistic evaluation of ambiguous stimuli. In environments with high levels of threat, behavioral strategies that reduce risk-taking would be evolutionarily advantageous. Hence, an affective response system that lowers expectations of favorable outcomes in ambiguous situations after encountering threat-related stimuli would serve adaptive purposes, such as curbing excessive exploratory behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakumi Iki
- Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ikuma Adachi
- Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, Japan
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5
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Bailey AM, Barrett A, Havens L, Leyder E, Merchant T, Starnes H, Thompson SM. Changes in social, sexual, and hedonic behaviors in rats in response to stress and restoration by a negative allosteric modulator of α5-subunit containing GABA receptor. Behav Brain Res 2023; 452:114554. [PMID: 37356670 PMCID: PMC10528636 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a debilitating and costly human condition. Treatment for MDD relies heavily on the use of antidepressants that are slow to produce mood-related changes and are not effective in all patients, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Several novel compounds, including negative allosteric modulators of GABA-A receptors containing the α5-subunit (GABA-NAMs), are under investigation for potential fast acting therapeutic use in MDD. Preclinical evidence that these compounds produce a rapid antidepressant-like response comes primarily from simple tests of escape behavior and preference for rewarding stimuli after chronic stress. To increase the ethological relevance of these compounds, we tested the hypothesis that the GABA-NAM, L-655,708, would produce an antidepressant-like response in more complex stress-sensitive social and sex behaviors, which are of relevance to the symptoms of human depression. In male rats subjected to chronic restraint stress, injection of L-655,708 increased reward in a sexual conditioned place preference task, increased male sexual activity with a receptive female, and re-established male social dominance hierarchies within 24 h. We also report increased sucrose preference in the social defeat stress (SDS) model of depression following GABA-NAM administration, demonstrating that its antidepressant-like actions are independent of the type of chronic stress administered. This work extends the impact of GABA-NAMs beyond traditional tests of anhedonia and further supports the development of alpha5 subunit-selective GABA-NAMs as a potential fast-acting therapeutic approach for treating human MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aileen M Bailey
- Department of Psychology, St. Mary's College of Maryland, St. Mary's City, MD, United States.
| | - Allison Barrett
- Department of Psychology, St. Mary's College of Maryland, St. Mary's City, MD, United States
| | - Lane Havens
- Department of Psychology, St. Mary's College of Maryland, St. Mary's City, MD, United States
| | - Erica Leyder
- Department of Psychology, St. Mary's College of Maryland, St. Mary's City, MD, United States
| | - Taylor Merchant
- Department of Psychology, St. Mary's College of Maryland, St. Mary's City, MD, United States
| | - Hannah Starnes
- Department of Psychology, St. Mary's College of Maryland, St. Mary's City, MD, United States
| | - Scott M Thompson
- Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States
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Hales CA, Stuart SA, Griffiths J, Bartlett J, Arban R, Hengerer B, Robinson ES. Investigating neuropsychological and reward-related deficits in a chronic corticosterone-induced model of depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2023; 147:105953. [PMID: 36334546 PMCID: PMC10465973 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Chronic stress is a known risk factor for the development of major depression (MDD) and is commonly used to induce a depression-like phenotype in rodents. Similar phenotypic effects are also observed in rodents when treated chronically with the stress hormone corticosterone. In this study, we investigated the neuropsychological consequences of chronic corticosterone treatment in male rats using two translational rodent assays of affective bias, the judgement bias task (JBT) and affective bias test (ABT). We also used the reward learning assay (RLA) and sucrose preference test (SPT) to quantify reward-related behaviours. Negative biases in decision-making were observed in the chronic corticosterone-treated group but only when the treatment was given shortly before each behavioural session. The same dose of corticosterone, when given daily after completion of the behavioural session had no effects. Chronic corticosterone treatment did not potentiate negative affective biases in the ABT induced by either an acute pharmacological or stress manipulation but both reward learning and reward sensitivity were blunted. Analysis of the brain tissue from animals receiving chronic corticosterone found reduced hippocampal neurogenesis consistent with previous studies suggesting corticosterone-induced neurotrophic deficits. Taken together, these data suggest chronic corticosterone treatment induces neuropsychological effects related to changes in reward learning, memory and negative biases in decision making, but these decision-making biases depend on whether rewarding outcomes were experienced during the acute effects of the drug. These findings suggest an important interaction between psychological and biological factors resulting in negative biases in decision-making in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire A Hales
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK; Department of Psychology, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Sarah A Stuart
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Jennifer Griffiths
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Julia Bartlett
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Roberto Arban
- CNS Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma Gmbh & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Bastian Hengerer
- CNS Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma Gmbh & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Emma Sj Robinson
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK.
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7
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Bračić M, Bohn L, Siewert V, von Kortzfleisch VT, Schielzeth H, Kaiser S, Sachser N, Richter SH. Once an optimist, always an optimist? Studying cognitive judgment bias in mice. Behav Ecol 2022; 33:775-788. [PMID: 35812364 PMCID: PMC9262167 DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arac040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals differ in the way they judge ambiguous information: some individuals interpret ambiguous information in a more optimistic, and others in a more pessimistic way. Over the past two decades, such "optimistic" and "pessimistic" cognitive judgment biases (CJBs) have been utilized in animal welfare science as indicators of animals' emotional states. However, empirical studies on their ecological and evolutionary relevance are still lacking. We, therefore, aimed at transferring the concept of "optimism" and "pessimism" to behavioral ecology and investigated the role of genetic and environmental factors in modulating CJB in mice. In addition, we assessed the temporal stability of individual differences in CJB. We show that the chosen genotypes (C57BL/6J and B6D2F1N) and environments ("scarce" and "complex") did not have a statistically significant influence on the responses in the CJB test. By contrast, they influenced anxiety-like behavior with C57BL/6J mice and mice from the "complex" environment displaying less anxiety-like behavior than B6D2F1N mice and mice from the "scarce" environment. As the selected genotypes and environments did not explain the existing differences in CJB, future studies might investigate the impact of other genotypes and environmental conditions on CJB, and additionally, elucidate the role of other potential causes like endocrine profiles and epigenetic modifications. Furthermore, we show that individual differences in CJB were repeatable over a period of seven weeks, suggesting that CJB represents a temporally stable trait in laboratory mice. Therefore, we encourage the further study of CJB within an animal personality framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marko Bračić
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Münster Graduate School of Evolution, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Lena Bohn
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Münster Graduate School of Evolution, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Viktoria Siewert
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | | | - Holger Schielzeth
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Sylvia Kaiser
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Münster Graduate School of Evolution, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Norbert Sachser
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Münster Graduate School of Evolution, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - S Helene Richter
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Münster Graduate School of Evolution, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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8
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Zhang YH, Wang N, Lin XX, Wang JY, Luo F. Application of Cognitive Bias Testing in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: A Mini-Review Based on Animal Studies. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:924319. [PMID: 35846788 PMCID: PMC9283837 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.924319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive biases can arise from cognitive processing under affective states and reflect the impact of emotion on cognition. In animal studies, the existing methods for detecting animal emotional state are still relatively limited, and cognitive bias test has gradually become an important supplement. In recent years, its effectiveness in animal research related to neuropsychiatric disorders has been widely verified. Some studies have found that cognitive bias test is more sensitive than traditional test methods such as forced swimming test and sucrose preference test in detecting emotional state. Therefore, it has great potential to become an important tool to measure the influence of neuropsychiatric disorder-associated emotions on cognitive processing. Moreover, it also can be used in early drug screening to effectively assess the potential effects or side effects of drugs on affective state prior to clinical trials. In this mini-review, we summarize the application of cognitive bias tests in animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and pain. We also discussed its critical value in the identification of neuropsychiatric disorders and the validation of therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Han Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ning Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Ning Wang,
| | - Xiao-Xiao Lin
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jin-Yan Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Luo
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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9
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Kajs BL, van Roessel PJ, Davis GL, Williams LM, Rodriguez CI, Gunaydin LA. Valence processing alterations in SAPAP3 knockout mice and human OCD. J Psychiatr Res 2022; 151:657-666. [PMID: 35661523 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Abnormalities in valence processing - the processing of aversive or appetitive stimuli - may be an underrecognized component of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Preclinical rodent models have been critical in furthering pathophysiological understanding of OCD, yet there is a dearth of investigations examining whether rodent models of compulsive behavior show alterations in valence systems congruent with those seen in individuals with OCD. In this study, we sought to assess valence processing in a preclinical rodent model of compulsive behavior, the SAPAP3 knockout (KO) mouse model, and compare our preclinical findings to similar behavioral phenomena in OCD patients. In SAPAP3 KO mice, we used auditory fear conditioning and extinction to examine alterations in negative valence processing and reward-based operant conditioning to examine alterations in positive valence processing. We find that SAPAP3 KO mice show evidence of heightened negative valence processing through enhanced fear learning and impaired fear extinction. SAPAP3 KO mice also show deficits in reward acquisition and goal-directed behavior, suggesting impaired positive valence processing. In OCD patients, we used validated behavioral tests to assess explicit and implicit processing of fear-related facial expressions (negative valence) and socially-rewarding happy expressions (positive valence). We find similar trends towards enhanced negative and impaired positive valence processing in OCD patients. Overall, our results reveal valence processing abnormalities in a preclinical rodent model of compulsive behavior similar to those seen in OCD patients, with implications for valence processing alterations as novel therapeutic targets across a translational research spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget L Kajs
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Peter J van Roessel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA; Sierra Pacific Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC), VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
| | - Gwynne L Davis
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Leanne M Williams
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA; Sierra Pacific Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC), VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
| | - Carolyn I Rodriguez
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA; Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA.
| | - Lisa A Gunaydin
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA; Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA.
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10
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Hodges TE, Lee GY, Noh SH, Galea LA. Sex and age differences in cognitive bias and neural activation in response to cognitive bias testing. Neurobiol Stress 2022; 18:100458. [PMID: 35586750 PMCID: PMC9109184 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2022.100458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive symptoms of depression, including negative cognitive bias, are more severe in women than in men. Current treatments to reduce negative cognitive bias are not effective and sex differences in the neural activity underlying cognitive bias may play a role. Here we examined sex and age differences in cognitive bias and functional connectivity in a novel paradigm. Male and female rats underwent an 18-day cognitive bias procedure, in which they learned to discriminate between two contexts (shock paired context A, no-shock paired context B), during either adolescence (postnatal day (PD 40)), young adulthood (PD 100), or middle-age (PD 210). Cognitive bias was measured as freezing behaviour in response to an ambiguous context (context C), with freezing levels akin to the shock paired context coded as negative bias. All animals learned to discriminate between the two contexts, regardless of sex or age. However, adults (young adults, middle-aged) displayed a greater negative cognitive bias compared to adolescents, and middle-aged males had a greater negative cognitive bias than middle-aged females. Females had greater neural activation of the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and hippocampal regions to the ambiguous context compared to males, and young rats (adolescent, young adults) had greater neural activation in these regions compared to middle-aged rats. Functional connectivity between regions involved in cognitive bias differed by age and sex, and only adult males had negative correlations between the frontal regions and hippocampal regions. These findings highlight the importance of examining age and sex when investigating the underpinnings of negative cognitive bias and lay the groundwork for determining what age- and sex-specific regions to target in future cognitive bias studies. Middle-aged males had a greater negative cognitive bias than middle-aged females. Adult rats displayed a greater negative cognitive bias compared to adolescents. Greater neural activity in females than males in limbic and reward regions. Greater role of the frontal cortex activation in the cognitive bias of adults. Functional connectivity in response to cognitive bias differed by age and sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis E. Hodges
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - Grace Y. Lee
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sophia H. Noh
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Canada
| | - Liisa A.M. Galea
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Canada
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Canada
- Corresponding author. Dr. Liisa Galea Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z3
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11
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Pizzagalli DA, Roberts AC. Prefrontal cortex and depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:225-246. [PMID: 34341498 PMCID: PMC8617037 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-021-01101-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 86.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) has emerged as one of the regions most consistently impaired in major depressive disorder (MDD). Although functional and structural PFC abnormalities have been reported in both individuals with current MDD as well as those at increased vulnerability to MDD, this information has not translated into better treatment and prevention strategies. Here, we argue that dissecting depressive phenotypes into biologically more tractable dimensions - negative processing biases, anhedonia, despair-like behavior (learned helplessness) - affords unique opportunities for integrating clinical findings with mechanistic evidence emerging from preclinical models relevant to depression, and thereby promises to improve our understanding of MDD. To this end, we review and integrate clinical and preclinical literature pertinent to these core phenotypes, while emphasizing a systems-level approach, treatment effects, and whether specific PFC abnormalities are causes or consequences of MDD. In addition, we discuss several key issues linked to cross-species translation, including functional brain homology across species, the importance of dissecting neural pathways underlying specific functional domains that can be fruitfully probed across species, and the experimental approaches that best ensure translatability. Future directions and clinical implications of this burgeoning literature are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego A Pizzagalli
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School & McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA.
| | - Angela C Roberts
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Noworyta K, Cieslik A, Rygula R. Neuromolecular Underpinnings of Negative Cognitive Bias in Depression. Cells 2021; 10:cells10113157. [PMID: 34831380 PMCID: PMC8621066 DOI: 10.3390/cells10113157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
This selective review aims to summarize the recent advances in understanding the neuromolecular underpinnings of biased cognition in depressive disorder. We begin by considering the cognitive correlates of depressed mood and the key brain systems implicated in its development. We then review the core findings across two domains of biased cognitive function in depression: pessimistic judgment bias and abnormal response to negative feedback. In considering their underlying substrates, we focus on the neurochemical mechanisms identified by genetic, molecular and pharmacological challenge studies. We conclude by discussing experimental approaches to the treatment of depression, which are derived largely from an improved understanding of its cognitive substrates.
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Neville V, Dayan P, Gilchrist ID, Paul ES, Mendl M. Using Primary Reinforcement to Enhance Translatability of a Human Affect and Decision-Making Judgment Bias Task. J Cogn Neurosci 2021; 33:2523-2535. [PMID: 34477879 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Good translatability of behavioral measures of affect (emotion) between human and nonhuman animals is core to comparative studies. The judgment bias (JB) task, which measures "optimistic" and "pessimistic" decision-making under ambiguity as indicators of positive and negative affective valence, has been used in both human and nonhuman animals. However, one key disparity between human and nonhuman studies is that the former typically use secondary reinforcers (e.g., money) whereas the latter typically use primary reinforcers (e.g., food). To address this deficiency and shed further light on JB as a measure of affect, we developed a novel version of a JB task for humans using primary reinforcers. Data on decision-making and reported affective state during the JB task were analyzed using computational modeling. Overall, participants grasped the task well, and as anticipated, their reported affective valence correlated with trial-by-trial variation in offered volume of juice. In addition, previous findings from monetary versions of the task were replicated: More positive prediction errors were associated with more positive affective valence, a higher lapse rate was associated with lower affective arousal, and affective arousal decreased as a function of number of trials completed. There was no evidence that more positive valence was associated with greater "optimism," but instead, there was evidence that affective valence influenced the participants' decision stochasticity, whereas affective arousal tended to influence their propensity for errors. This novel version of the JB task provides a useful tool for investigation of the links between primary reward and punisher experience, affect, and decision-making, especially from a comparative perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter Dayan
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics.,University of Tübingen
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Lucantonio F, Kim E, Su Z, Chang AJ, Bari BA, Cohen JY. Aversive stimuli bias corticothalamic responses to motivationally significant cues. eLife 2021; 10:57634. [PMID: 34738905 PMCID: PMC8570692 DOI: 10.7554/elife.57634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Making predictions about future rewards or punishments is fundamental to adaptive behavior. These processes are influenced by prior experience. For example, prior exposure to aversive stimuli or stressors changes behavioral responses to negative- and positive-value predictive cues. Here, we demonstrate a role for medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) neurons projecting to the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus (PVT; mPFC→PVT) in this process. We found that a history of aversive stimuli negatively biased behavioral responses to motivationally relevant cues in mice and that this negative bias was associated with hyperactivity in mPFC→PVT neurons during exposure to those cues. Furthermore, artificially mimicking this hyperactive response with selective optogenetic excitation of the same pathway recapitulated the negative behavioral bias induced by aversive stimuli, whereas optogenetic inactivation of mPFC→PVT neurons prevented the development of the negative bias. Together, our results highlight how information flow within the mPFC→PVT circuit is critical for making predictions about motivationally-relevant outcomes as a function of prior experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Lucantonio
- The Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Eunyoung Kim
- The Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Zhixiao Su
- The Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Anna J Chang
- The Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Bilal A Bari
- The Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
| | - Jeremiah Y Cohen
- The Solomon H Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Brain Science Institute, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, United States
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15
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Casey RA, Naj-Oleari M, Campbell S, Mendl M, Blackwell EJ. Dogs are more pessimistic if their owners use two or more aversive training methods. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19023. [PMID: 34561478 PMCID: PMC8463679 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97743-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Domestic dogs are trained using a range of different methods, broadly categorised as reward based (positive reinforcement/negative punishment) and aversive based (positive punishment/negative reinforcement). Previous research has suggested associations between use of positive punishment-based techniques and undesired behaviours, but there is little research investigating the relative welfare consequences of these different approaches. This study used a judgement bias task to compare the underlying mood state of dogs whose owners reported using two or more positive punishment/negative reinforcement based techniques, with those trained using only positive reinforcement/negative punishment in a matched pair study design. Dogs were trained to discriminate between rewarded and unrewarded locations equidistant from a start box, and mean latencies recorded. Their subsequent latency to intermediate ‘ambiguous’ locations was recorded as an indication of whether these were perceived as likely to contain food or not. Dogs trained using aversive methods were slower to all ambiguous locations. This difference was significant for latency to the middle (Wilcoxon Z = − 2.380, P = 0.017), and near positive (Wilcoxon Z = − 2.447, P = 0.014) locations, suggesting that dogs trained using coercive methods may have a more negative mood state, and hence that there are welfare implications of training dogs using such methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Casey
- Dogs Trust, Canine Behaviour and Research, Clarissa Baldwin House, 17, Wakley Street, London, UK.
| | | | - Sarah Campbell
- Vets for Pets, 350 Southchurch Drive, Clifton, Nottingham, UK
| | - Michael Mendl
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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16
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Noworyta K, Cieslik A, Rygula R. Reinforcement-based cognitive biases as vulnerability factors in alcohol addiction: From humans to animal models. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 179:4265-4280. [PMID: 34232505 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is one of the most common, but still poorly treated, psychiatric conditions. Developing new treatments requires a better understanding of the aetiology of symptoms and evaluation of novel therapeutic targets in preclinical studies. Recent developments in our understanding of the reinforcement-based cognitive biases (RBCBs) that contribute to the development of AUD and its treatment offer new opportunities for both clinical and preclinical research. In this review, we first briefly describe psychological and cognitive theories that involve various aspects of reinforcement sensitivity in the development, maintenance, and recurrence of alcohol addiction. Furthermore, in separate sections, we describe studies investigating RBCBs and their neural, neurochemical, and pharmacological correlates, and we discuss possible interactions between RBCBs and trajectories of AUD. Finally, we describe how recent translational studies using state-of-the-art animal models can facilitate our understanding of the role of reinforcement sensitivity and RBCBs in various aspects of AUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Noworyta
- Department of Pharmacology, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agata Cieslik
- Department of Pharmacology, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Rafal Rygula
- Department of Pharmacology, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
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Ozgunay S, Murray JK, Rowe E, Gee NR, Bartholomeus M, Casey R. Cognitive and Composite Behavioural Welfare Assessments of Pet Cats between the Ages of 9-22 Months, Living in Single and Multi-Cat Households. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11061793. [PMID: 34208456 PMCID: PMC8234069 DOI: 10.3390/ani11061793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Although agonistic interactions between cats are often regarded clinically as a source of stress, there is currently limited research evidence regarding the welfare impact of keeping multiple cats as pets. The aim of this study was to compare welfare indicators between cats living in single and multi-cat households, as well as between cats living in multi-cat households where agonistic behaviour was/was not reported by owners. Indicators included a spatial judgment bias task (JBT) and the cat stress score (CSS). CSSs were higher in cats from single compared with multi-cat households. CSSs were lower for cats that showed a more ‘pessimistic’ response in the JBT, suggesting these cats appeared to be less stressed. JBT results did not vary depending on the presence of, or reports of agonistic behaviours between, cohabiting cats. These data suggest that mood states (as measured by the JBT) were not impacted by the social groupings investigated, and that cats from single-cat households showed more signs of stress (as measured by CSS) than those in multi-cat households. Alternative explanations cannot be discounted, particularly due to the narrow sample population and broad scope of husbandry conditions that were unaccounted for. Further research is warranted to explore the extent to which variables that could not be controlled may have confounded findings. Abstract Although agonistic interactions between cats are often regarded clinically as a source of stress, there is currently limited research evidence regarding the welfare impact of keeping multiple cats as pets. The aim of this study was to compare welfare indicators between cats living in domestic single and multi-cat households, as well as between multi-cat households where agonistic behaviour was/was not reported by owners. Indicators included a spatial judgment bias task (JBT), where longer latencies to ambiguous probes are interpreted as being related to a more ‘pessimistic’ mood state, and the cat stress score (CSS), where high scores are indicative of high stress levels. Of 128 focal cats between the ages of 9–22 months, 94 were from multi-cat households, 126 had useable CSS data and 42 had JBT results suitable for analysis. CSSs were significantly lower for cats showing a more ‘pessimistic’ response in the JBT. It is possible that the cats that appeared to be the most relaxed may have been showing inactivity relating to negative affective states and/or were the least active/food motivated, and therefore slower in the JBT. CSSs were significantly higher in cats from single compared with multi-cat households, and did not vary with reports of agonistic interactions in multi-cat households. JBT results did not vary depending on the presence of, or reports of agonistic behaviours between, cohabiting cats. These data suggest that cats from single-cat households may be more likely to show signs of acute stress than those in multi-cat households. Alternative explanations are possible. For example, lower CSSs in the multi-cat group may reflect ‘relief’ effects resulting from separating cats for the test period, or inactivity relating to negative affective states. Due to the narrow sample population and broad scope of husbandry conditions, the potential for confounding variables limits the degree by which results can be used to inform causation of the relationships identified. Further research is warranted to replicate this work and explore potential confounders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sezan Ozgunay
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK; (J.K.M.); (E.R.); (R.C.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Jane K. Murray
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK; (J.K.M.); (E.R.); (R.C.)
| | - Elizabeth Rowe
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK; (J.K.M.); (E.R.); (R.C.)
| | - Nancy R. Gee
- Center for Human-Animal Interaction, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA;
| | | | - Rachel Casey
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK; (J.K.M.); (E.R.); (R.C.)
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18
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Hales CA, Bartlett JM, Arban R, Hengerer B, Robinson ES. Effects of pro-depressant and immunomodulatory drugs on biases in decision-making in the rat judgement bias task. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 55:2955-2970. [PMID: 33502040 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Studies in human and non-human species suggest that decision-making behaviour can be biased by an affective state, also termed an affective bias. To study these behaviours in non-human species, judgement bias tasks (JBT) have been developed. Animals are trained to associate specific cues (tones) with a positive or negative/less positive outcome. Animals are then presented with intermediate ambiguous cues and affective biases quantified by observing whether animals make more optimistic or more pessimistic choices. Here we use a high versus low reward JBT and test whether pharmacologically distinct compounds, which induce negative biases in learning and memory, have similar effects on decision-making: tetrabenazine (0.0-1.0 mg/kg), retinoic acid (0.0-10.0 mg/kg), and rimonabant (0.0-10.0 mg/kg). We also tested immunomodulatory compounds: interferon-α (0-100 units/kg), lipopolysaccharide (0.0-10.0 μg/kg), and corticosterone (0.0-10.0 mg/kg). We observed no specific effects in the JBT with any acute treatment except corticosterone which induced a negative bias. We have previously observed a similar lack of effect with acute but not chronic psychosocial stress and so next tested decision-making behaviour following chronic interferon-alpha. Animals developed a negative bias which was sustained even after treatment was ended. These data suggest that decision-making behaviour in the task is sensitive to chronic but not acute effects of most pro-depressant drugs or immunomodulators, but the exogenous administration of acute corticosterone induces pessimistic behaviour. This work supports our hypothesis that biases in decision-making develop over a different temporal scale to those seen with learning and memory which may be relevant in the development and perpetuation of mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire A Hales
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Julia M Bartlett
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Roberto Arban
- CNS Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Bastian Hengerer
- CNS Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Emma S Robinson
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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19
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Temperament, Plasticity, and Emotions in Defensive Behaviour of Paca (Mammalia, Hystricognatha). Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020293. [PMID: 33498936 PMCID: PMC7911602 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The paca (Cuniculus paca), a Neotropical caviomorph rodent, provides the most sought-after game meat in all its range, and it therefore faces high hunting pressure and consequent poor welfare. The species is categorised as having a conservation status of “least concern” and appears resilient to over-hunting by humans, which may be related to individuals’ behavioural characteristics. To investigate this, we submitted captive pacas to temperament (personality) tests designed to assess individual responses to short challenges and to evaluate individuals’ emotional states. Our results showed that paca with a “restless” temperament performed more abnormal behaviour and less exploratory behaviour in a test of defensive behaviour, which elevations in faecal glucocorticoid metabolites indicated to be stressful. Plasticity in defensive behaviour was inferred from changes in behavioural responses and apparently rapid adaptation to different levels of risk. Our results suggest that individual differences and consistency of behavioural responses displayed by paca toward challenges may reflect a generally flexible and successful defensive behavioural response that underpins the paca’s survival, despite the threat of overhunting throughout its range. Abstract Within a species, some individuals are better able to cope with threatening environments than others. Paca (Cuniculus paca) appear resilient to over-hunting by humans, which may be related to the behavioural plasticity shown by this species. To investigate this, we submitted captive pacas to temperament tests designed to assess individual responses to short challenges and judgement bias tests (JBT) to evaluate individuals’ affective states. Results indicated across-time and context stability in closely correlated “agitated”, “fearful” and “tense” responses; this temperament dimension was labelled “restless”. Individual “restless” scores predicted responses to novelty, although not to simulated chasing and capture by humans in a separate modified defence test battery (MDTB). Restless animals were more likely to show a greater proportion of positive responses to an ambiguous cue during JBT after the MDTB. Plasticity in defensive behaviour was inferred from changes in behavioural responses and apparently rapid adaptation to challenge in the different phases of the MDTB. The results indicate that both temperament and behavioural plasticity may play a role in influencing paca responses to risky situations. Therefore, our study highlights the importance of understanding the role of individual temperament traits and behavioural plasticity in order to better interpret the animals’ conservation status and vulnerabilities.
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20
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Crump A, Bethell EJ, Earley R, Lee VE, Mendl M, Oldham L, Turner SP, Arnott G. Emotion in animal contests. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201715. [PMID: 33203327 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Emotions encompass cognitive and behavioural responses to reward and punishment. Using contests as a case-study, we propose that short-term emotions underpin animals' assessments, decision-making and behaviour. Equating contest assessments to emotional 'appraisals', we describe how contestants appraise more than resource value and outcome probability. These appraisals elicit the cognition, drive and neurophysiology that governs aggressive behaviour. We discuss how recent contest outcomes induce long-term moods, which impact subsequent contest behaviour. Finally, we distinguish between integral (objectively relevant) and incidental (objectively irrelevant) emotions and moods (affective states). Unlike existing ecological models, our approach predicts that incidental events influence contest dynamics, and that contests become incidental influences themselves, potentially causing maladaptive decision-making. As affective states cross contexts, a more holistic ethology (incorporating emotions and moods) would illuminate animal cognition and behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Crump
- Centre for Philosophy of Natural and Social Science, London School of Economics and Political Science, UK.,Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, UK
| | - Emily J Bethell
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, UK
| | - Ryan Earley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, USA
| | - Victoria E Lee
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare, Scotland's Rural College, UK
| | - Michael Mendl
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, UK
| | - Lucy Oldham
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare, Scotland's Rural College, UK
| | - Simon P Turner
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare, Scotland's Rural College, UK
| | - Gareth Arnott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, UK
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Whittaker AL, Barker TH. A consideration of the role of biology and test design as confounding factors in judgement bias tests. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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22
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Lecorps B, Weary DM, von Keyserlingk MA. Regrouping induces anhedonia-like responses in dairy heifers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 1:45-49. [PMID: 36341145 PMCID: PMC9623682 DOI: 10.3168/jdsc.2020-0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Regrouping is a stressful experience for cattle Reduced ability to experience pleasure (anhedonia) indicates negative mood state We measured changes in brush use to assess anhedonia in 6-mo-old heifers Regrouping resulted in reduced brush use, indicative of low mood
Intensively housed dairy cattle are commonly regrouped (mixed into a new social group) as part of routine farm procedures. This stressful procedure triggers heightened levels of agonistic behaviors and disrupts animals' time budgets. However, little is known regarding the effects of regrouping on cattle's affective states. The aim of this study was to explore whether regrouping (involving a change in both the social and physical environment) triggers anhedonia (i.e., the reduced ability to experience pleasure) in 6-mo-old dairy heifers, a phenomenon associated with negative mood. In this study, we assessed anhedonia using changes in the use of a mechanical brush. Holstein heifers (n = 16) were trained to use a mechanical brush and then given the opportunity to individually brush for 10 min every 2 d. Time spent brushing (during a 10-min brush test) was collected before, during, and after regrouping (2-d interval) with the assumption that heifers would reduce their use of the brush during regrouping. Each heifer was individually regrouped into a new social group composed of 12 older and unfamiliar heifers and allowed access to the brush at 8 and 56 h after the onset of regrouping. Immediately after the last test, each heifer was brought back to her original pen and allowed to mingle with familiar pen-mates before being tested again 2 and 4 d later. When tested 8 h after regrouping, heifers reduced time spent brushing by 44 ± 27% (95% confidence interval: −96.18 to −41.8) compared with before regrouping; however, no differences were detected 56 h after regrouping. There was no relationship between the intensity of the decrease in brush use and any behaviors (number of agonistic interactions received, time heifers spent resting, or synchronization at the feed bunk) recorded for the 8 h immediately before testing (i.e., between 0 and 8 h and between 48 and 56 h after regrouping). These results indicate that regrouping induces anhedonia-like responses in dairy heifers on the day of regrouping. This routine procedure may thus induce negative mood in dairy heifers. This response was not related to behaviors typically collected to assess the negative effects of regrouping. Maintaining dairy cattle in stable social groups should be favored.
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23
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Effects of different social experiences on emotional state in mice. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15255. [PMID: 32943726 PMCID: PMC7498458 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71994-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
A comprehensive understanding of animals' emotions can be achieved by combining cognitive, behavioural, and physiological measures. Applying such a multi-method approach, we here examined the emotional state of mice after they had made one of three different social experiences: either a mildly "adverse", a "beneficial", or a "neutral" experience. Using a recently established touchscreen paradigm, cognitive judgement bias was assessed twice, once before and once after the respective experience. Anxiety-like behaviour was examined using a standardised battery of behavioural tests and faecal corticosterone metabolite concentrations were measured. Surprisingly, only minor effects of the social experiences on the animals' cognitive judgement bias and no effects on anxiety-like behaviour and corticosterone metabolite levels were found. It might be speculated that the experiences provided were not strong enough to exert the expected impact on the animals' emotional state. Alternatively, the intensive training procedure necessary for cognitive judgement bias testing might have had a cognitive enrichment effect, potentially countering external influences. While further investigations are required to ascertain the specific causes underlying our findings, the present study adds essential empirical data to the so far scarce amount of studies combining cognitive, behavioural, and physiological measures of emotional state in mice.
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Ito N, Sasaki K, Takemoto H, Kobayashi Y, Isoda H, Odaguchi H. Emotional Impairments and Neuroinflammation are Induced in Male Mice Invulnerable to Repeated Social Defeat Stress. Neuroscience 2020; 443:148-163. [PMID: 32707290 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Prolonged stress triggers neuroinflammation, which plays a significant role in the development of depression; however, stressed people do not always suffer from depression because of individual differences in stress vulnerability. Negative cognitive bias (NCB) toward pessimistic judgment often underlies depressive episodes. However, a relationship between stress vulnerability, neuroinflammation, and NCB remains elusive. In addition, an animal model with all the traits would be a powerful tool for studying the etiology of depression and its therapeutic approaches. Accordingly, this study evaluated the effect of stress vulnerability on neuroinflammation and depression-related behaviors, including NCB in males, using a modified version of repeated social defeat stress (mRSDS) paradigm, a validated animal model of psychosocial stress. Exposure to mRSDS, consisting of 5 min of social defeat by unfamiliar CD-1 aggressor mice for five consecutive days, caused NCB, which co-occurred with depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors, and neuroinflammation in male BALB/c mice. Treatment with minocycline, an antibiotic with anti-inflammatory property, blocked mRSDS-induced depressive-like behaviors and neuroinflammation, but not NCB, indicating the limited effect of an anti-inflammatory intervention. In addition, marked differences were found in neuroinflammatory profiles and hippocampal gene expression patterns between resilient and unstressed mice, as well as between susceptible and resilient mice. Therefore, mice resilient to mRSDS are indeed not intact. Our findings provide insights into the unique features of the mRSDS model in male BALB/c mice, which could be used to investigate the etiological mechanisms underlying depression as well as bridge the gap in the relationship between stress vulnerability, neuroinflammation, and NCB in males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Ito
- Department of Clinical Research, Oriental Medicine Research Center, Kitasato University, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8642, Japan.
| | - Kazunori Sasaki
- Alliance for Research on the Mediterranean and North Africa (ARENA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan; Interdisciplinary Research Center for Catalytic Chemistry, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8565, Japan; Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8571, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Takemoto
- School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8642, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Kobayashi
- Department of Clinical Research, Oriental Medicine Research Center, Kitasato University, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8642, Japan; School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8642, Japan
| | - Hiroko Isoda
- Alliance for Research on the Mediterranean and North Africa (ARENA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan; Interdisciplinary Research Center for Catalytic Chemistry, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8565, Japan; Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Odaguchi
- Department of Clinical Research, Oriental Medicine Research Center, Kitasato University, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8642, Japan
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25
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Subordination in female rats impedes learning as determined by a judgment bias training protocol. J Vet Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2020.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Hinchcliffe JK, Mendl M, Robinson ES. Investigating hormone-induced changes in affective state using the affective bias test in male and female rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2020; 115:104647. [PMID: 32179367 PMCID: PMC7193894 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recent clinical and pre-clinical research suggests that affective biases may play an important role in the development and perpetuation of mood disorders. Studies in animals have also revealed that similar neuropsychological processes can be measured in non-human species using behavioural assays designed to measure biases in learning and memory or decision-making. Given the proposed links between hormones and mood, we used the affective bias test to investigate the effects of different hormone treatments in both male and female rats. Animals were pre-treated with acute doses of hormone or vehicle control prior to learning each of two independent substrate-reward associations. During a subsequent choice test, positive or negative biases were observed by animal's preference towards or away from the substrate learnt during drug treatment respectively. In both sexes, oestradiol and the oestrogen-like compound bisphenol A induced positive biases, whilst blockade of oestrogen hormones with formestane induced a negative bias. Progesterone induced a negative bias in both sexes, but testosterone only induced a negative bias in males. Blocking testosterone with flutamide induced a positive bias in both sexes at the higher dose (10 mg/kg). The oxytocin analogue, carbetocin induced positive biases in both sexes but the vasopressin analogue, desmopressin, induced a positive bias in male rats only. These results provide evidence that modulating levels of hormones using exogenous treatments can induce affective biases in rats. They also suggest that hormone-induced affective biases influence cognitive and emotional behaviour and could have longer-term effects in some mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna K. Hinchcliffe
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Michael Mendl
- School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
| | - Emma S.J. Robinson
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK,Corresponding author.
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Aggressive encounters lead to negative affective state in fish. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0231330. [PMID: 32287305 PMCID: PMC7156048 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0231330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals show various behavioural, neural and physiological changes in response to losing aggressive encounters. Here, we investigated affective state, which are emotion-like processes influenced by positive or negative experiences, in a territorial fish following aggressive encounters and explore links to bold/shy behavioural traits. Eighteen 15-month old Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii) received three tests in order to determine bold/shy behavioural traits then underwent a typical go/no-go judgement bias (JB) test. The JB apparatus had five adjacent chambers with access provided by a sliding door and fish underwent a training procedure to enter a chamber at one end of the apparatus to receive a food reward but were chased using a net if they entered the chamber at the opposite end. Only one third (N = 6) of fish successfully completed the training procedure (trained fish), and the remaining 12 fish failed to reach the learning criterion (untrained fish). Trained fish housed with a larger aggressive Murray cod for 24 h were significantly less likely to enter intermediate chambers during probe tests compared to control fish, demonstrating a pessimistic response. Trained fish showed “bolder” responses in emergence and conspecific inspection tests than untrained fish, suggesting that shyer individuals were less able to apply a learned behaviour in a novel environment. Our limited sample was biased towards bold individuals but supports the hypothesis that losing an aggressive encounter leads to pessimistic decision-making.
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Nguyen HAT, Guo C, Homberg JR. Cognitive Bias Under Adverse and Rewarding Conditions: A Systematic Review of Rodent Studies. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:14. [PMID: 32116594 PMCID: PMC7029709 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Cognitive bias refers to emotional influences on cognition and provides a cognitive measure of negativity- or positivity-bias through assessment of the behavioral responses to ambiguous stimuli. Thus, under negative conditions an animal is more likely to judge ambiguous stimuli as negative, and under positive conditions as positive. The transfer of past experiences to novel but similar situations is highly adaptive, as it allows the animal to anticipate on the most likely outcome of the ambiguous cues. Methods: We conducted a systematic review to summarize the current state of evidence on cognitive bias in rodents under adverse and rewarding or supportive conditions. Results: In total 20 studies were identified, in which auditory, spatial, tactile, or visual tasks were used. Stressed rodents generally made fewer positive responses than their non-stressed conspecifics. Housing enrichment made rodents more positive in anticipation of ambiguous cues. Ethanol seeking rats generalized the ambiguous cues to sucrose and less to ethanol if sucrose was available. Amphetamine, fluoxetine, and ketamine shifted the bias toward positivity, while reboxetine elevated negative bias. Conclusion: The auditory tasks have been most extensively validated, followed by the tactile and spatial tasks, and finally the visual tasks. The tactile and spatial tasks use latency as readout, which is sensitive to confounding factors. It is yet uncertain whether spatial tasks measure cognitive bias. Across all tasks, with some exceptions, rodents exposed to stress show less positivity-bias when exposed to ambiguous cues, whereas rodents exposed to rewarding substances or treated with antidepressant drugs are biased toward reward. Considering the methodological heterogeneity and risk of bias, the present data should be interpreted with caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho A T Nguyen
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Chao Guo
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Judith R Homberg
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
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Krakenberg V, von Kortzfleisch VT, Kaiser S, Sachser N, Richter SH. Differential Effects of Serotonin Transporter Genotype on Anxiety-Like Behavior and Cognitive Judgment Bias in Mice. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:263. [PMID: 31849623 PMCID: PMC6902087 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In humans, the short allele of a common polymorphism in the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene is associated with a higher risk to develop depression and anxiety disorders. Furthermore, individuals carrying this allele are characterized by negative judgment biases, as they tend to interpret ambiguous information in a more pessimistic way. 5-HTT knockout mice, lacking the 5-HTT gene either homo- or heterozygously, provide a widely used model organism for the study of symptoms related to human anxiety disorders. In the present study, we aimed to prove the anxiety-like phenotype of the 5-HTT mouse model, and to investigate whether 5-HTT genotype also causes differences in judgment bias. While our results confirm that homozygous 5-HTT knockout mice display highest levels of anxiety-like behavior, it was decreased in heterozygous mice. Against our expectations, we did not detect differences in the animals’ judgment bias. These results indicate that at least in mice the association between 5-HTT genotype and judgment bias is not straightforward and that other factors, including multiple genes as well as environmental influences, are implicated in the modulation of judgment biases. More research is needed to gain further insights into their function as potential endophenotypes for psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Krakenberg
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Vanessa Tabea von Kortzfleisch
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sylvia Kaiser
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Norbert Sachser
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - S Helene Richter
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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Jirkof P, Rudeck J, Lewejohann L. Assessing Affective State in Laboratory Rodents to Promote Animal Welfare-What Is the Progress in Applied Refinement Research? Animals (Basel) 2019; 9:E1026. [PMID: 31775293 PMCID: PMC6941082 DOI: 10.3390/ani9121026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
An animal's capacity to suffer is a prerequisite for any animal welfare concern, and the minimization of suffering is a key aim of refinement research. In contrast to the traditional focus on avoiding or reducing negative welfare states, modern animal welfare concepts highlight the importance of promoting positive welfare states in laboratory animals. Reliable assessments of affective states, as well as the knowledge of how to elicit positive affective states, are central to this concept. Important achievements have been made to assess pain and other negative affective states in animals in the last decades, but it is only recently that the neurobiology of positive emotions in humans and animals has been gaining more interest. Thereby, the need for promotion of positive affective states for laboratory animals is gaining more acceptance, and methods allowing the assessment of affective states in animals have been increasingly introduced. In this overview article, we present common and emerging methods to assess affective states in laboratory rodents. We focus on the implementation of these methods into applied refinement research to identify achieved progress as well as the future potential of these tools to improve animal welfare in animal-based research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulin Jirkof
- Department Animal Welfare and 3R, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Juliane Rudeck
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), German Center for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), 12277 Berlin, Germany; (J.R.); (L.L.)
| | - Lars Lewejohann
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), German Center for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), 12277 Berlin, Germany; (J.R.); (L.L.)
- Institute of Animal Welfare, Animal Behavior and Laboratory Animal Science, Freie University Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
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31
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Clegg ILK, Rödel HG, Mercera B, van der Heul S, Schrijvers T, de Laender P, Gojceta R, Zimmitti M, Verhoeven E, Burger J, Bunskoek PE, Delfour F. Dolphins' Willingness to Participate ( WtP) in Positive Reinforcement Training as a Potential Welfare Indicator, Where WtP Predicts Early Changes in Health Status. Front Psychol 2019; 10:2112. [PMID: 31607979 PMCID: PMC6773886 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Welfare science has built its foundations on veterinary medicine and thus measures of health. Since bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) tend to mask symptoms of poor health, management in captivity would benefit from advanced understanding on the links between health and behavioural parameters, and few studies exist on the topic. In this study, four representative behavioural and health measures were chosen: health status (as qualified by veterinarians), percentage of daily food eaten, occurrences of new rake marks (proxy measure of social activity), and willingness to participate (WtP) in Positive Reinforcement Training sessions as qualitatively measured by their caretakers. These data were collected multiple times a day, every day over the course of a year from a multi-facility, large sample size (n dolphins = 51), allowing powerful analyses of the relationships between measures. First, it was found that dolphins with a higher WtP score also had a significantly better health status, ate a higher percentage of their daily food, and a lower occurrence of new rake marks. In addition, the WtP score was significantly lower up to 3 days before the weekly veterinary diagnosis of a decrease in health state; the percentage of daily food eaten and new rake mark measures did not show any significant change before such a diagnosis. These results suggest that WtP in training sessions is a potential behavioural measure of dolphin welfare, and an indicator of early changes in the dolphins' health state. We therefore suggest measurement of WtP as a more practical and non-invasive tool to support veterinary care and general management. More work needs to be conducted to elucidate the influence of social behaviour on health, and to identify other potential welfare indicators, but this long-term study has shown that qualitative measures can be both practical and valid when assessing dolphin welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella L. K. Clegg
- Animal Welfare Expertise, London, United Kingdom
- Laboratoire d’Ethologie Expérimentale et Comparée EA 4443, Université Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Villetaneuse, France
- Parc Astérix, Plailly, France
| | - Heiko G. Rödel
- Laboratoire d’Ethologie Expérimentale et Comparée EA 4443, Université Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Villetaneuse, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Martina Zimmitti
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Fabienne Delfour
- Laboratoire d’Ethologie Expérimentale et Comparée EA 4443, Université Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Villetaneuse, France
- Parc Astérix, Plailly, France
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32
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McCoy DE, Schiestl M, Neilands P, Hassall R, Gray RD, Taylor AH. New Caledonian Crows Behave Optimistically after Using Tools. Curr Biol 2019; 29:2737-2742.e3. [PMID: 31378612 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Are complex, species-specific behaviors in animals reinforced by material reward alone or do they also induce positive emotions? Many adaptive human behaviors are intrinsically motivated: they not only improve our material outcomes, but improve our affect as well [1-8]. Work to date on animal optimism, as an indicator of positive affect, has generally focused on how animals react to change in their circumstances, such as when their environment is enriched [9-14] or they are manipulated by humans [15-23], rather than whether complex actions improve emotional state. Here, we show that wild New Caledonian crows are optimistic after tool use, a complex, species-specific behavior. We further demonstrate that this finding cannot be explained by the crows needing to put more effort into gaining food. Our findings therefore raise the possibility that intrinsic motivation (enjoyment) may be a fundamental proximate cause in the evolution of tool use and other complex behaviors. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dakota E McCoy
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| | - Martina Schiestl
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand; Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Patrick Neilands
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Rebecca Hassall
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Russell D Gray
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand; Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena 07745, Germany
| | - Alex H Taylor
- School of Psychology, University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
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33
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Stuart SA, Hinchcliffe JK, Robinson ESJ. Evidence that neuropsychological deficits following early life adversity may underlie vulnerability to depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2019; 44:1623-1630. [PMID: 30978725 PMCID: PMC6784985 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-019-0388-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Early life adversity (ELA) is a risk factor for major depressive disorder (MDD), however the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Clinical studies suggest that negative affective biases (the process, whereby cognitive processes such as learning and memory and decision-making are modified by emotional state) represent a vulnerability factor for MDD. In this study we investigate the impact of ELA on affective biases and reward-associated behaviours in rats. Sprague Dawley rat pups underwent 14 days of postnatal maternal separation (180 min/day from postnatal day 1: MS180) whilst control pups remained unhandled. In adulthood, affective biases associated with reward learning and decision-making were assessed using the affective bias test (ABT), or judgement bias task (JBT) respectively. Changes in motivation and reward sensitivity were tested in a progressive ratio (PR) schedule of operant responding and the sucrose preference test (SPT) respectively. We observed that MS180 animals expressed enhanced negative biases in response to acute corticosterone treatment but without effects on antidepressant-induced positive biases. ELA animals were impaired in their ability to develop appropriate biases in response to changes in reward value in a modified ABT but in the absence of any changes in reward sensitivity or motivation. No effects on decision-making were observed in the JBT but MS180 animals failed to develop the same more optimistic behavioural profile as controls in response to an increase in reward value. These findings suggest that ELA in rats increases vulnerability to negative affective biases and impairs animals' ability to appropriately learn reward value, independent of a reward sensitivity or changes in motivation. These data provide important evidence linking ELA with relevant neuropsychological impairments that may explain increased risk of developing MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Stuart
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Justyna K Hinchcliffe
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK.
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Robinson ESJ. Translational new approaches for investigating mood disorders in rodents and what they may reveal about the underlying neurobiology of major depressive disorder. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 373:rstb.2017.0036. [PMID: 29352034 PMCID: PMC5790833 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Mood disorders represent one of society's most costly and challenging health burdens. The drug treatments used today were initially discovered serendipitously in the 1950s. Animal models were then developed based on the ability of these drugs to alter specific behaviours. These models have played a major role in the development of the second generation of antidepressants. However, their use has been heavily criticized, particularly in relation to whether they recapitulate similar underlying biology to the psychiatric disorder they are proposed to represent. This article considers our work in the field of affective bias and the development of a translational research programme to try to develop and validate better animal models. We discuss whether the new data that have arisen from these studies support an alternative perspective on the underlying neurobiological processes that lead to major depressive disorder (MDD). Specifically, this article will consider whether a neuropsychological mechanism involving affective biases plays a causal role in the development of MDD and its associated emotional and behavioural symptoms. These animal studies also raise the possibility that neuropsychological mechanisms involving affective biases are a precursor to, rather than a consequence of, the neurotrophic changes linked to MDD. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Of mice and mental health: facilitating dialogue between basic and clinical neuroscientists’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
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35
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Abstract
Loss of interest in rewarding activities is a hallmark of many psychiatric disorders and may be relevant for neurodegenerative disorders and patients suffering from brain injury. There is increasing evidence that deficits in reward-related behaviour are more complex than previously described. The traditional view of anhedonia as 'the inability to experience pleasure' may be too limited to fully encompass the types of reward deficit observed in these patients. Developments in methods to measure different aspects of reward processing in humans and animals are starting to provide insights into the complexity of this behaviour. In this article we consider the rodent models which have traditionally been used to study reward deficits in psychiatric disorders and consider their limitations relative to clinical findings. We then discuss work where methods derived from human neuropsychological tests are providing insights into the complexity of reward-related behaviour. Specifically, we consider tasks which investigate different aspects of reward-related behaviour focusing on learning and memory as well as decision-making and consider what these may mean in terms of how we model reward deficits in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe L Slaney
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 4PX, UK
| | - Claire A Hales
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 4PX, UK
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 4PX, UK
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Barker TH, Kind KL, Groves PD, Howarth GS, Whittaker AL. Oestrous phase cyclicity influences judgment biasing in rats. Behav Processes 2018; 157:678-684. [PMID: 29653156 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The identification of cognitive bias has become an important measure of animal welfare. Negative cognitive biases develop from a tendency for animals to process novel information pessimistically. Judgment-bias testing is the commonplace methodology to detect cognitive biases. However, concerns with these methods have been frequently-reported; one of which being the discrepancy between male and female cognitive expression. The current study assessed the factors of social status and oestrus, to investigate whether oestrous cycle rotation, or subordination stress encouraged an increase in pessimistic responses. Female Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 24) were trained on an active-choice judgment bias paradigm. Responses to the ambiguous probe were recorded as optimistic or pessimistic. Oestrous phase was determined by assessing vaginal cytology in stained vaginal cell smears. Rats in the dioestrous phase and those rats considered to be subordinate demonstrated an increased percentage of pessimistic responses. However, no interaction between these factors was observed. This suggests that oestrous cyclicity can influence the judgment biases of female animals; a previously unreported finding. On this basis, researchers should be encouraged to account for both oestrous phase cyclicity and social status as an additional fixed effect in study design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Hugh Barker
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia.
| | - Karen Lee Kind
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Peta Danielle Groves
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Gordon Stanley Howarth
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia; Gastroenterology Department, Children, Youth and Women's Health Service, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Alexandra Louise Whittaker
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
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37
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Cockburn A, Smith M, Rusbridge C, Fowler C, Paul ES, Murrell JC, Blackwell EJ, Casey RA, Whay HR, Mendl M. Evidence of negative affective state in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels with syringomyelia. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Environmental complexity buffers against stress-induced negative judgement bias in female chickens. Sci Rep 2018; 8:5404. [PMID: 29599444 PMCID: PMC5876351 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-23545-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive processes are often biased by emotions. In humans, affective disorders are accompanied by pessimistic judgement, while optimistic judgement is linked to emotional stability. Similar to humans, animals tend to interpret ambiguous stimuli negatively after experiencing stressful events, although the long-lasting impact on judgement bias has rarely been investigated. We measure judgement bias in female chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) after exposure to cold stress, and before and after exposure to additional unpredictable stressors. Additionally, we explore if brain monoamines can explain differences in judgement bias. Chicks exposed to cold stress did not differ in judgement bias compared to controls, but showed sensitivity to additional stressors by having higher motivation for social reinstatement. Environmental complexity reduced stress-induced negative judgement bias, by maintaining an optimistic bias in individuals housed in complex conditions even after stress exposure. Moreover, judgement bias was related to dopamine turnover rate in mesencephalon, with higher activity in individuals that had a more optimistic response. These results demonstrate that environmental complexity can buffer against negative effects of additive stress and that dopamine relates to judgement bias in chicks. These results reveal that both internal and external factors can mediate emotionally biased judgement in animals, thus showing similarities to findings in humans.
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Curzytek K, Kubera M, Trojan E, Wójcik K, Basta-Kaim A, Detka J, Maes M, Rygula R. The effects of pessimism on cell-mediated immunity in rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 80:295-303. [PMID: 28595946 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
We used a recently developed ambiguous-cue interpretation (ACI) paradigm to investigate whether 'optimism' and 'pessimism' as behavioural traits may be interrelated with immune functions in rodents. To this aim, in a series of ACI tests (cognitive bias screening, CBS), we identified rats that displayed 'pessimistic' and 'optimistic' traits. We found significant differences in immune biomarkers between 'optimistic' and 'pessimistic' animals. Moreover 'pessimism' was associated with significantly lower relative weight of the spleen and thymus, significantly decreased proliferative activity of splenocytes. Pessimism was associated with an increased production of interleukin-(IL)1β and IL-4, activin A, l-selectin, interferon (IFN)-γ and some chemokines and receptors for advanced glycation endproducts. The findings indicate an inflammatory profile in "pessimistic" animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Curzytek
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Marta Kubera
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland.
| | - Ewa Trojan
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Kinga Wójcik
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Basta-Kaim
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Jan Detka
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Experimental Neuroendocrinology, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Michael Maes
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Rafal Rygula
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
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Slaney C, Hinchcliffe JK, Robinson ESJ. Translational Shifts in Preclinical Models of Depression: Implications for Biomarkers for Improved Treatments. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2018; 40:169-193. [PMID: 29696602 PMCID: PMC7614182 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2018_44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the neurobiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) remains one of the major challenges in neuroscience. The disease is heterogeneous in nature, and patients present with a varied symptom profile. Studies seeking to identify biomarkers for MDD diagnosis and treatment have not yet found any one candidate which achieves sufficient sensitivity and specificity. In this article, we consider whether neuropsychological impairments, specifically affective biases, could provide a behavioural biomarker. Affective biases are observed when emotional states influence cognitive function. These biases have been shown to influence a number of different cognitive domains with some specific deficits observed in MDD. It has also been possible to use these neuropsychological tests to inform the development of translational tasks for non-human species. The results from studies in rodents suggest that quantification of affective biases is feasible and may provide a reliable method to predict antidepressant efficacy as well as pro-depressant risk. Animal studies suggest that affective state-induced biases in learning and memory operate over a different time course to biases influencing decision-making. The implications for these differences in terms of task validity and future ideas relating to affective biases and MDD are discussed. We also describe our most recent studies which have shown that depression-like phenotypes share a common deficit in reward-related learning and memory which we refer to as a reward-induced positive bias. This deficit is dissociable from more typical measures of hedonic behaviour and motivation for reward and may represent an important and distinct form of reward deficit linked to MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe Slaney
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol, UK
| | - Justyna K Hinchcliffe
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol, UK
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol, UK.
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Raoult CMC, Moser J, Gygax L. Mood As Cumulative Expectation Mismatch: A Test of Theory Based on Data from Non-verbal Cognitive Bias Tests. Front Psychol 2017; 8:2197. [PMID: 29491844 PMCID: PMC5824615 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Affective states are known to influence behavior and cognitive processes. To assess mood (moderately long-term affective states), the cognitive judgment bias test was developed and has been widely used in various animal species. However, little is known about how mood changes, how mood can be experimentally manipulated, and how mood then feeds back into cognitive judgment. A recent theory argues that mood reflects the cumulative impact of differences between obtained outcomes and expectations. Here expectations refer to an established context. Situations in which an established context fails to match an outcome are then perceived as mismatches of expectation and outcome. We take advantage of the large number of studies published on non-verbal cognitive bias tests in recent years (95 studies with a total of 162 independent tests) to test whether cumulative mismatch could indeed have led to the observed mood changes. Based on a criteria list, we assessed whether mismatch had occurred with the experimental procedure used to induce mood (mood induction mismatch), or in the context of the non-verbal cognitive bias procedure (testing mismatch). For the mood induction mismatch, we scored the mismatch between the subjects’ potential expectations and the manipulations conducted for inducing mood whereas, for the testing mismatch, we scored mismatches that may have occurred during the actual testing. We then investigated whether these two types of mismatch can predict the actual outcome of the cognitive bias study. The present evaluation shows that mood induction mismatch cannot well predict the success of a cognitive bias test. On the other hand, testing mismatch can modulate or even inverse the expected outcome. We think, cognitive bias studies should more specifically aim at creating expectation mismatch while inducing mood states to test the cumulative mismatch theory more properly. Furthermore, testing mismatch should be avoided as much as possible because it can reverse the affective state of animals as measured in a cognitive judgment bias paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille M C Raoult
- Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Agroscope, Ettenhausen, Switzerland.,Animal Welfare Division, Veterinary Public Health Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Julia Moser
- Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Agroscope, Ettenhausen, Switzerland
| | - Lorenz Gygax
- Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, Agroscope, Ettenhausen, Switzerland
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Hales CA, Houghton CJ, Robinson ESJ. Behavioural and computational methods reveal differential effects for how delayed and rapid onset antidepressants effect decision making in rats. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2017; 27:1268-1280. [PMID: 29100819 PMCID: PMC5720479 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most prevalent psychiatric disorders. Until the recent discovery of the rapid onset antidepressant action of ketamine, pharmacological treatments for MDD were limited to conventional antidepressant drugs with delayed clinical efficacy. Using a judgement bias task, this study has investigated whether the temporal differences observed in patients would be reflected in affective biases and decision making behaviour in rodents. The diffusion model was also used to investigate the underlying decision making processes. Positive biases were induced in this task over timeframes that mirror the rapid versus delayed antidepressant efficacy of the drugs in clinical populations. Diffusion modelling revealed that the antidepressants tested also have different effects on decision making processes, suggesting they may act through different neurobiological substrates. This combination of behaviour and computational modelling may provide a useful approach to further investigate the mechanisms underlying rapid antidepressant effect and assess potential new treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire A Hales
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Conor J Houghton
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK.
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Roelofs S, Murphy E, Ni H, Gieling E, Nordquist RE, van der Staay FJ. Judgement bias in pigs is independent of performance in a spatial holeboard task and conditional discrimination learning. Anim Cogn 2017; 20:739-753. [PMID: 28508125 PMCID: PMC5486501 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1095-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Biases in judgement of ambiguous stimuli, as measured in a judgement bias task, have been proposed as a measure of the valence of affective states in animals. We recently suggested a list of criteria for behavioural tests of emotion, one of them stating that responses on the task used to assess emotionality should not be confounded by, among others, differences in learning capacity, i.e. must not simply reflect the cognitive capacity of an animal. We performed three independent studies in which pigs acquired a spatial holeboard task, a free choice maze which simultaneously assesses working memory and reference memory. Next, pigs learned a conditional discrimination between auditory stimuli predicting a large or small reward, a prerequisite for assessment of judgement bias. Once pigs had acquired the conditional discrimination task, optimistic responses to previously unheard ambiguous stimuli were measured in the judgement bias task as choices indicating expectation of the large reward. We found that optimism in the judgement bias task was independent of all three measures of learning and memory indicating that the performance is not dependent on the pig's cognitive abilities. These results support the use of biases in judgement as proxy indicators of emotional valence in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanne Roelofs
- Behaviour and Welfare Group (Formerly: Emotion and Cognition Group), Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University, Stratenum Building, Room STR5.203, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Eimear Murphy
- Behaviour and Welfare Group (Formerly: Emotion and Cognition Group), Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University, Stratenum Building, Room STR5.203, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Division of Animal Welfare, VPHI Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Haifang Ni
- Behaviour and Welfare Group (Formerly: Emotion and Cognition Group), Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Methodology and Statistics, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 14, 3584 CH, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Elise Gieling
- Behaviour and Welfare Group (Formerly: Emotion and Cognition Group), Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University, Stratenum Building, Room STR5.203, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Rebecca E Nordquist
- Behaviour and Welfare Group (Formerly: Emotion and Cognition Group), Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University, Stratenum Building, Room STR5.203, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - F Josef van der Staay
- Behaviour and Welfare Group (Formerly: Emotion and Cognition Group), Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University, Stratenum Building, Room STR5.203, Universiteitsweg 100, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Golebiowska J, Rygula R. Effects of acute dopaminergic and serotonergic manipulations in the ACI paradigm depend on the basal valence of cognitive judgement bias in rats. Behav Brain Res 2017; 327:133-143. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Revised: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Clegg IL, Rödel HG, Delfour F. Bottlenose dolphins engaging in more social affiliative behaviour judge ambiguous cues more optimistically. Behav Brain Res 2017; 322:115-122. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Do horses with poor welfare show 'pessimistic' cognitive biases? Naturwissenschaften 2017; 104:8. [PMID: 28083632 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-016-1429-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
This field study tested the hypothesis that domestic horses living under putatively challenging-to-welfare conditions (for example involving social, spatial, feeding constraints) would present signs of poor welfare and co-occurring pessimistic judgement biases. Our subjects were 34 horses who had been housed for over 3 years in either restricted riding school situations (e.g. kept in single boxes, with limited roughage, ridden by inexperienced riders; N = 25) or under more naturalistic conditions (e.g. access to free-range, kept in stable social groups, leisure riding; N = 9). The horses' welfare was assessed by recording health-related, behavioural and postural indicators. Additionally, after learning a location task to discriminate a bucket containing either edible food ('positive' location) or unpalatable food ('negative' location), the horses were presented with a bucket located near the positive position, near the negative position and halfway between the positive and negative positions to assess their judgement biases. The riding school horses displayed the highest levels of behavioural and health-related problems and a pessimistic judgment bias, whereas the horses living under more naturalistic conditions displayed indications of good welfare and an optimistic bias. Moreover, pessimistic bias data strongly correlated with poor welfare data. This suggests that a lowered mood impacts a non-human species' perception of its environment and highlights cognitive biases as an appropriate tool to assess the impact of chronic living conditions on horse welfare.
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Papciak J, Rygula R. Measuring Cognitive Judgement Bias in Rats Using the Ambiguous-Cue Interpretation Test. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN NEUROSCIENCE 2017; 78:9.57.1-9.57.22. [PMID: 28046201 DOI: 10.1002/cpns.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
An active-choice, operant, ambiguous-cue interpretation (ACI) paradigm is described that can be used for measuring cognitive judgement bias in rats. In this behavioral test, animals in an operant conditioning chamber are trained to press a lever to receive a food reward when a specific tone is presented, and to press another lever in response to a different tone to avoid punishment by an electric foot-shock. The tones, which serve as discriminative stimuli, acquire a positive or negative valence, and the training continues until the rats demonstrate a stable, correct discrimination between these two stimuli. The animals are tested after they have attained stable discrimination performance. The ambiguous-cue test consists of a discrimination task, as described above, but includes the presentation of additional tones with frequencies that are intermediate between the trained positive and negative tones. The lever-press response pattern to these ambiguous cues is considered an indicator of the rat's expectation of a positive or negative event; in other words, it is a measure of 'optimism' or 'pessimism', respectively. © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Papciak
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Krakow, Poland
- Currently at School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Rafal Rygula
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Affective Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Krakow, Poland
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Abstract
Depression is one of the most common but poorly understood psychiatric conditions. Although drug treatments and psychological therapies are effective in some patients, many do not achieve full remission and some patients receive no apparent benefit. Developing new improved treatments requires a better understanding of the aetiology of symptoms and evaluation of novel therapeutic targets in pre-clinical studies. Recent developments in our understanding of the basic cognitive processes that may contribute to the development of depression and its treatment offer new opportunities for both clinical and pre-clinical research. This chapter discusses the clinical evidence supporting a cognitive neuropsychological model of depression and antidepressant efficacy, and how this information may be usefully translated to pre-clinical investigation. Studies using neuropsychological tests in depressed patients and at risk populations have revealed basic negative emotional biases and disrupted reward and punishment processing, which may also impact on non-affective cognition. These affective biases are sensitive to antidepressant treatments with early onset effects observed, suggesting an important role in recovery. This clinical work into affective biases has also facilitated back-translation to animals and the development of assays to study affective biases in rodents. These animal studies suggest that, similar to humans, rodents in putative negative affective states exhibit negative affective biases on decision-making and memory tasks. Antidepressant treatments also induce positive biases in these rodent tasks, supporting the translational validity of this approach. Although still in the early stages of development and validation, affective biases in depression have the potential to offer new insights into the clinical condition, as well as facilitating the development of more translational approaches for pre-clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- E S J Robinson
- School of Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 4PX, UK.
| | - J P Roiser
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, 17 Queen Square, London, WC1N 3AR, UK
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Iigaya K, Jolivald A, Jitkrittum W, Gilchrist ID, Dayan P, Paul E, Mendl M. Cognitive Bias in Ambiguity Judgements: Using Computational Models to Dissect the Effects of Mild Mood Manipulation in Humans. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0165840. [PMID: 27829041 PMCID: PMC5102472 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0165840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Positive and negative moods can be treated as prior expectations over future delivery of rewards and punishments. This provides an inferential foundation for the cognitive (judgement) bias task, now widely-used for assessing affective states in non-human animals. In the task, information about affect is extracted from the optimistic or pessimistic manner in which participants resolve ambiguities in sensory input. Here, we report a novel variant of the task aimed at dissecting the effects of affect manipulations on perceptual and value computations for decision-making under ambiguity in humans. Participants were instructed to judge which way a Gabor patch (250ms presentation) was leaning. If the stimulus leant one way (e.g. left), pressing the REWard key yielded a monetary WIN whilst pressing the SAFE key failed to acquire the WIN. If it leant the other way (e.g. right), pressing the SAFE key avoided a LOSS whilst pressing the REWard key incurred the LOSS. The size (0–100 UK pence) of the offered WIN and threatened LOSS, and the ambiguity of the stimulus (vertical being completely ambiguous) were varied on a trial-by-trial basis, allowing us to investigate how decisions were affected by differing combinations of these factors. Half the subjects performed the task in a ‘Pleasantly’ decorated room and were given a gift (bag of sweets) prior to starting, whilst the other half were in a bare ‘Unpleasant’ room and were not given anything. Although these treatments had little effect on self-reported mood, they did lead to differences in decision-making. All subjects were risk averse under ambiguity, consistent with the notion of loss aversion. Analysis using a Bayesian decision model indicated that Unpleasant Room subjects were (‘pessimistically’) biased towards choosing the SAFE key under ambiguity, but also weighed WINS more heavily than LOSSes compared to Pleasant Room subjects. These apparently contradictory findings may be explained by the influence of affect on different processes underlying decision-making, and the task presented here offers opportunities for further dissecting such processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohito Iigaya
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, UCL, London W1T 4JG, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (KI); (MM)
| | - Aurelie Jolivald
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, BS40 5DU, United Kingdom
| | | | - Iain D. Gilchrist
- School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TU, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Dayan
- Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, UCL, London W1T 4JG, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth Paul
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, BS40 5DU, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Mendl
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, School of Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, BS40 5DU, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (KI); (MM)
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Cognitive bias in rats evoked by ultrasonic vocalizations suggests emotional contagion. Behav Processes 2016; 132:5-11. [PMID: 27591850 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Emotional contagion occurs when an individual acquires the emotional state of another via social cues, and is an important component of empathy. Empathic responses seen in rodents are often explained by emotional contagion. Rats emit 50kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) in positive contexts, and emit 22kHz USVs in negative contexts. We tested whether rats show positive or negative emotional contagion after hearing conspecific USVs via a cognitive bias task. We hypothesized that animals in positive emotional states would perceive an ambiguous cue as being good (optimistic bias) whereas animals in negative states would perceive the same cue as being bad (pessimistic bias). Rats were trained to respond differently to two sounds with distinct pitches, each of which signaled either a positive or a negative outcome. An ambiguous cue with a frequency falling between the two stimuli tested whether rats interpreted it as positive or negative. Results showed that rats responded to ambiguous cues as positive when they heard the 50kHz USV (positive vocalizations) and negative when they heard the 22kHz USV (negative vocalizations). This suggests that conspecific USVs can evoke emotional contagion, both for positive and negative emotions, to change the affective states in receivers.
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