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Hirata RYS, Oliveira RN, Silva MSCF, Armada-Moreira A, Vaz SH, Ribeiro FF, Sebastião AM, Lemes JA, de Andrade JS, Rosário BA, Céspedes IC, Viana MB. Platinum nanoparticle-based microreactors protect against the behavioral and neurobiological consequences of chronic stress exposure. Brain Res Bull 2022; 190:1-11. [PMID: 36089164 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Excitotoxicity is described as the exacerbated activation of glutamate AMPA and NMDA receptors that leads to neuronal damage, and ultimately to cell death. Astrocytes are responsible for the clearance of 80-90% of synaptically released glutamate, preventing excitotoxicity. Chronic stress renders neurons vulnerable to excitotoxicity and has been associated to neuropsychiatric disorders, i.e., anxiety. Microreactors containing platinum nanoparticles (Pt-NP) and glutamate dehydrogenase have shown in vitro activity against excitotoxicity. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the in vivo effects of these microreactors on the behavioral and neurobiological effects of chronic stress exposure. Rats were either unstressed or exposed for 2 weeks to an unpredictable chronic mild stress paradigm (UCMS), administered intra-ventral hippocampus with the microreactors (with or without the blockage of astrocyte functioning), and seven days later tested in the elevated T-maze (ETM; Experiment 1). The ETM allows the measurement of two defensive responses, avoidance and escape, in terms of psychopathology respectively related to generalized anxiety and panic disorder. Locomotor activity in an open field was also measured. Since previous evidence shows that stress inhibits adult neurogenesis, we evaluated the effects of the different treatments on the number of cells expressing the marker of migrating neuroblasts doublecortin (DCX) in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus (Experiment 2). Results showed that UCMS induces anxiogenic effects, increases locomotion, and decreases the number of DCX cells in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus, effects that were counteracted by microreactor administration. This is the first study to demonstrate the in vivo efficacy of Pt-NP against the behavioral and neurobiological effects of chronic stress exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Y S Hirata
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Silva Jardim, 136, 11015-020 Santos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Roberto N Oliveira
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Silva Jardim, 136, 11015-020 Santos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mariana S C F Silva
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Silva Jardim, 136, 11015-020 Santos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Adam Armada-Moreira
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Bredgatan 33, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Sandra H Vaz
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz MB, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Professor Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Filipa F Ribeiro
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz MB, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Professor Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana Maria Sebastião
- Instituto de Farmacologia e Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz MB, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal; Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Professor Egas Moniz, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Jéssica A Lemes
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Silva Jardim, 136, 11015-020 Santos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - José S de Andrade
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Silva Jardim, 136, 11015-020 Santos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bárbara A Rosário
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Silva Jardim, 136, 11015-020 Santos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Isabel C Céspedes
- Departamento de Morfologia e Genética, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Botucatu, 740, 04023-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Milena B Viana
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Silva Jardim, 136, 11015-020 Santos, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Gonçalves BSM, Mariotti FFN, Ponsone G, Soares TAA, Perão PCBG, Mônico-Neto M, Cariste LM, Maluf A, Nascimento GDSS, Antunes HKM, Céspedes IC, Viana MDB, Le Sueur-Maluf L. High and fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones induce an anxiogenic effect, which can be modulated under stress conditions: Evidence from an assisted reproductive rodent model. Horm Behav 2022; 137:105087. [PMID: 34826650 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2021.105087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Elevated levels of endogenous ovarian hormones are conditions commonly experienced by women undergoing assisted reproductive technologies (ART). Additionally, infertility-associated stress and treatment routines are factors that together may have a highly negative impact on female emotionality, which can be aggravated when several cycles of ART are needed to attempt pregnancy. This study aimed to investigate the effect of high and fluctuating levels of gonadal hormones induced by repeated ovarian stimulation on the stress response in rodents. To mimic the context of ART, female rats were exposed to an unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) paradigm for four weeks. During this time, three cycles of ovarian stimulation (superovulation) (150 IU/Kg of PMSG and 75 IU/Kg of hCG) were applied, with intervals of two estrous cycles between them. The rats were distributed into four groups: Repeated Superovulation/UCMS; Repeated Superovulation/No Stress; Saline/UCMS; and Saline/No Stress. Anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviors were evaluated in a light-dark transition box and by splash test, respectively. Corticosterone, estradiol, progesterone, and biometric parameters were assessed. Data were analyzed using a two-way Generalized Linear Model (GzLM). Our results showed that repeated ovarian stimulation exerts by itself an expressive anxiogenic effect. Surprisingly, when high and fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones were combined with chronic stress, anxiety-like behavior was no longer observed, and a depressive-like state was not detected. Our findings suggest that females subjected to emotional overload induced by repeated ovarian stimulation and chronic stress seem to trigger the elaboration of adaptive coping strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Giovana Ponsone
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, 11015-020 Santos, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Marcos Mônico-Neto
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, 11015-020 Santos, SP, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Moro Cariste
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, 11015-020 Santos, SP, Brazil
| | - Auro Maluf
- Departamento de Ciências do Mar, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, 11070-102 Santos, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Isabel Cristina Céspedes
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, 11015-020 Santos, SP, Brazil
| | - Milena de Barros Viana
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, 11015-020 Santos, SP, Brazil
| | - Luciana Le Sueur-Maluf
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, 11015-020 Santos, SP, Brazil.
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Batistela MF, Vilela-Costa HH, Frias AT, Hernandes PM, Lovick TA, Zangrossi H. Enhanced responsiveness to hypoxic panicogenic challenge in female rats in late diestrus is suppressed by short-term, low-dose fluoxetine: Involvement of the dorsal raphe nucleus and the dorsal periaqueductal gray. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35:1523-1535. [PMID: 34872406 DOI: 10.1177/02698811211058986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute hypoxia, which is panicogenic in humans, also evokes panic-like behavior in male rats. Panic disorder is more common in women and susceptibility increases during the premenstrual phase of the cycle. AIMS We here investigated for the first time the impact of hypoxia on the expression of panic-like escape behavior by female rats and its relationship with the estrous cycle. We also evaluated functional activation of the midbrain panic circuitry in response to this panicogenic stimulus and whether short-term, low-dose fluoxetine treatment inhibits the hyper-responsiveness of females in late diestrus. METHODS Male and female Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to 7% O2. Females in late diestrus were also tested after short-term treatment with fluoxetine (1.75 or 10 mg/kg, i.p.). Brains were harvested and processed for c-Fos and tryptophan hydroxylase immunoreactivity in the periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) and dorsal raphe nucleus (DR). RESULTS Acute hypoxia evoked escape in both sexes. Overall, females were more responsive than males and this is clearer in late diestrus phase. In both sexes, hypoxia induced functional activation (c-Fos expression) in non-serotonergic cells in the lateral wings of the DR and dorsomedial PAG, which was greater in late diestrus than proestrus (lowest behavioral response to hypoxia). Increased responding in late diestrus (behavioral and cellular levels) was prevented by 1.75, but not 10 mg/kg fluoxetine. DISCUSSION The response of female rats to acute hypoxia models panic behavior in women. Low-dose fluoxetine administered in the premenstrual phase deserves further attention for management of panic disorders in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matheus F Batistela
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Heloísa H Vilela-Costa
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alana T Frias
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Paloma M Hernandes
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thelma A Lovick
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Helio Zangrossi
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Prakash N, Stark CJ, Keisler MN, Luo L, Der-Avakian A, Dulcis D. Serotonergic Plasticity in the Dorsal Raphe Nucleus Characterizes Susceptibility and Resilience to Anhedonia. J Neurosci 2020; 40:569-584. [PMID: 31792153 PMCID: PMC6961996 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1802-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic stress induces anhedonia in susceptible but not resilient individuals, a phenomenon observed in humans as well as animal models, but the molecular mechanisms underlying susceptibility and resilience are not well understood. We hypothesized that the serotonergic system, which is implicated in stress, reward, and antidepressant therapy, may play a role. We found that plasticity of the serotonergic system contributes to the differential vulnerability to stress displayed by susceptible and resilient animals. Stress-induced anhedonia was assessed in adult male rats using social defeat and intracranial self-stimulation, while changes in serotonergic phenotype were investigated using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Susceptible, but not resilient, rats displayed an increased number of neurons expressing the biosynthetic enzyme for serotonin, tryptophan-hydroxylase-2 (TPH2), in the ventral subnucleus of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRv). Further, a decrease in the number of DRv glutamatergic (VGLUT3+) neurons was observed in all stressed rats. This neurotransmitter plasticity is activity-dependent, as was revealed by chemogenetic manipulation of the central amygdala, a stress-sensitive nucleus that forms a major input to the DR. Activation of amygdalar corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)+ neurons abolished the increase in DRv TPH2+ neurons and ameliorated stress-induced anhedonia in susceptible rats. These findings show that activation of amygdalar CRH+ neurons induces resilience, and suppresses the gain of serotonergic phenotype in the DRv that is characteristic of susceptible rats. This molecular signature of vulnerability to stress-induced anhedonia and the active nature of resilience could be targeted to develop new treatments for stress-related disorders like depression.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Depression and other mental disorders can be induced by chronic or traumatic stressors. However, some individuals are resilient and do not develop depression in response to chronic stress. A complete picture of the molecular differences between susceptible and resilient individuals is necessary to understand how plasticity of limbic circuits is associated with the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders. Using a rodent model, our study identifies a novel molecular marker of susceptibility to stress-induced anhedonia, a core symptom of depression, and a means to modulate it. These findings will guide further investigation into cellular and circuit mechanisms of resilience, and the development of new treatments for depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandkishore Prakash
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Christiana J Stark
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Maria N Keisler
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Lily Luo
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Andre Der-Avakian
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Davide Dulcis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
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Anxiolytic and panicolytic-like effects of environmental enrichment seem to be modulated by serotonin neurons located in the dorsal subnucleus of the dorsal raphe. Brain Res Bull 2019; 150:272-280. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Chleilat E, Skatulla L, Rahhal B, Hussein MT, Feuerstein M, Krieglstein K, Roussa E. TGF-β Signaling Regulates Development of Midbrain Dopaminergic and Hindbrain Serotonergic Neuron Subgroups. Neuroscience 2018; 381:124-137. [PMID: 29689292 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Molecular and functional diversity within midbrain dopaminergic (mDA) and hindbrain serotonergic (5-HT) neurons has emerged as a relevant feature that could underlie selective vulnerability of neurons in clinical disorders. We have investigated the role of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) during development of mDA and 5-HT subgroups. We have generated TβRIIflox/flox::En1cre/+ mice where type II TGF-β receptor is conditionally deleted from engrailed 1-expressing cells and have investigated the hindbrain serotonergic system of these mice together with Tgf-β2-/- mice. The results show a significant decrease in the number of 5-HT neurons in TGF-β2-deficient mice at embryonic day (E) 12 and a selective significant decrease in the hindbrain paramedian raphe 5-HT neurons at E18, compared to wild type. Moreover, conditional deletion of TGF-β signaling from midbrain and rhombomere 1 leads to inactive TGF-β signaling in cre-expressing cells, impaired development of mouse mDA neuron subgroups and of dorsal raphe 5-HT neuron subgroups in a temporal manner. These results highlight a selective growth factor dependency of individual rostral hindbrain serotonergic subpopulations, emphasize the impact of TGF-β signaling during development of mDA and 5-HT subgroups, and suggest TGF-βs as potent candidates to establish diversity within the hindbrain serotonergic system. Thus, the data contribute to a better understanding of development and degeneration of mDA neurons and 5-HT-associated clinical disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enaam Chleilat
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Lena Skatulla
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Belal Rahhal
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; School of Medicine and Health Sciences, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine.
| | - Manal T Hussein
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Melanie Feuerstein
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Kerstin Krieglstein
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Eleni Roussa
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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Sanna MD, Quattrone A, Galeotti N. Antidepressant-like actions by silencing of neuronal ELAV-like RNA-binding proteins HuB and HuC in a model of depression in male mice. Neuropharmacology 2018; 135:444-454. [PMID: 29626565 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Currently available antidepressant drugs often fail to achieve full remission and patients might evolve to treatment resistance, showing the need to achieve a better therapy of depressive disorders. Increasing evidence supports that post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression is important in neuronal development and survival and a relevant role is played by RNA binding proteins (RBP). To explore new therapeutic strategies, we investigated the role of the neuron-specific ELAV-like RBP (HuB, HuC, HuD) in a mouse model of depression. In this study, a 4-week unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) protocol was applied to mice to induce a depressive-like phenotype. In the last 2 weeks of the UCMS regimen, silencing of HuB, HuC or HuD was performed by using specific antisense oligonucleotides (aODN). Treatment of UCMS-exposed mice with anti-HuB and anti-HuC aODN improved both anhedonia and behavioural despair, used as measures of depressive-like behaviour, without modifying the response of stressed mice to an anxiety-inducing environment. On the contrary, HuD silencing promoted an anxiolytic-like behaviour in UCMS-exposed mice without improving depressive-like behaviours. The antidepressant-like phenotype of anti-HuB and anti-HuC mice was not shown concurrently with the promotion of adult hippocampal neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus, and no increase in the BDNF and CREB content was detected. Conversely, in the CA3 hippocampal region, projection area of newly born neurons, HuB and HuC silencing increased the number of BrdU/NeuN positive cells. These results give the first indication of a role of nELAV in the modulation of emotional states in a mouse model of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Domenica Sanna
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Alessandro Quattrone
- Laboratory of Translational Genomics, Centre for Integrative Biology, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Galeotti
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.
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de Andrade JS, Céspedes IC, Abrão RO, da Silva JM, Ceneviva R, Ribeiro DA, Bittencourt JC, Viana MB. Effects of acute restraint and unpredictable chronic mild stress on brain corticotrophin releasing factor mRNA in the elevated T-maze. Behav Brain Res 2018; 337:139-150. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Goto S, Ogi H, Fushiki S, Itoh K. Prenatal and lactational bisphenol A exposure does not alter serotonergic neurons morphologically in the murine dorsal raphe nucleus. Brain Dev 2017; 39:475-482. [PMID: 28233694 DOI: 10.1016/j.braindev.2017.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Revised: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There is concern that bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine-disrupting chemical, affects brain development when exposed to a fetus and/or infant. We previously reported that increased serotonin (5-HT) and its metabolite (5-HIAA) in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) in murine adult brains when they were prenatally exposed to low doses of BPA. This study investigates the morphological alteration of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) in order to explain the disrupted serotonergic system after prenatal and lactational exposure to bisphenol A (BPA). METHODS The murine dams were orally administrated with 500μg/kg/day of BPA from embryonic day 0 to postnatal 3weeks. The DRN, the main region of serotonin production, was morphometrically analyzed at 14weeks, using immunohistochemistry and image analysis combined with 3-dimensional reconstruction. RESULTS No significant differences were revealed in the number of tryptophan hydroxylase 2-immunoreactive neurons in any of the DRN sub-regions or the morphometric parameters, including the whole volume, ventrodorsal, longitudinal, and wing lengths of the DRN among the BPA treatment and sex groups. CONCLUSIONS The murine DRN was not morphologically affected by prenatal and lactational exposure to low doses of BPA. Further studies are necessary regarding the function of serotonergic neurons and the activity of different kinds of related receptors in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoko Goto
- Department of Pathology and Applied Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Japan; Department of Pathology, Meiji University of Integrative Medicine, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ogi
- Department of Pathology and Applied Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Japan
| | - Shinji Fushiki
- Department of Pathology and Applied Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Japan
| | - Kyoko Itoh
- Department of Pathology and Applied Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Japan.
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