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Hinchcliffe JK, Robinson ESJ. The Affective Bias Test and Reward Learning Assay: Neuropsychological Models for Depression Research and Investigating Antidepressant Treatments in Rodents. Curr Protoc 2024; 4:e1057. [PMID: 38923877 DOI: 10.1002/cpz1.1057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
The Affective Bias Test (ABT) quantifies acute changes in affective state based on the affective biases they generate in an associative reward learning task. The Reward Learning Assay (RLA) provides a control assay for the ABT and reward-induced biases generated in this model are sensitive to changes in core affective state. Both tasks involve training animals to associate a specific digging substrate with a food reward. Animals learn to discriminate between two digging substrates placed in ceramic bowls, one rewarded and one unrewarded. In the ABT, the animal learns two independent substrate-reward associations with a fixed reward value following either an affective state or drug manipulation, or under control conditions. Affective biases generated are quantified in a choice test where the animals exhibit a bias (make more choices) for one of the substrates which is specifically related to affective state at the time of learning. The ABT is used to investigate biases generated during learning as well as modulation of biases associated with past experiences. The RLA follows a similar protocol, but the animal remains in the same affective state throughout and a reward-induced bias is generated by pairing one substrate with a higher value reward. The RLA provides a control to determine if drug treatments affect memory retrieval more generally. Studies in depression models and following environmental enrichment suggest that reward-induced biases are sensitive to core changes in affective state. Each task offers different insights into affective processing mechanisms and may help improve the translational validity of animal studies and benefit pre-clinical drug development. © 2024 The Authors. Current Protocols published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Bowl digging and discrimination training Basic Protocol 2: The reward learning assay Basic Protocol 3: The affective bias test - new learning Basic Protocol 4: The affective bias test - modulation of affective biases associated with past experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna K Hinchcliffe
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Vinnakota C, Schroeder A, Du X, Ikeda K, Ide S, Mishina M, Hudson M, Jones NC, Sundram S, Hill RA. Understanding the role of the NMDA receptor subunit, GluN2D, in mediating NMDA receptor antagonist-induced behavioral disruptions in male and female mice. J Neurosci Res 2024; 102:e25257. [PMID: 37814998 PMCID: PMC10953441 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Noncompetitive NMDA receptor (NMDAR) antagonists like phencyclidine (PCP) and ketamine cause psychosis-like symptoms in healthy humans, exacerbate schizophrenia symptoms in people with the disorder, and disrupt a range of schizophrenia-relevant behaviors in rodents, including hyperlocomotion. This is negated in mice lacking the GluN2D subunit of the NMDAR, suggesting the GluN2D subunit mediates the hyperlocomotor effects of these drugs. However, the role of GluN2D in mediating other schizophrenia-relevant NMDAR antagonist-induced behavioral disturbances, and in both sexes, is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the role of the GluN2D subunit in mediating schizophrenia-relevant behaviors induced by a range of NMDA receptor antagonists. Using both male and female GluN2D knockout (KO) mice, we examined the effects of the NMDAR antagonist's PCP, the S-ketamine enantiomer (S-ket), and the ketamine metabolite R-norketamine (R-norket) on locomotor activity, anxiety-related behavior, and recognition and short-term spatial memory. GluN2D-KO mice showed a blunted locomotor response to R-norket, S-ket, and PCP, a phenotype present in both sexes. GluN2D-KO mice of both sexes showed an anxious phenotype and S-ket, R-norket, and PCP showed anxiolytic effects that were dependent on sex and genotype. S-ket disrupted spatial recognition memory in females and novel object recognition memory in both sexes, independent of genotype. This datum identifies a role for the GluN2D subunit in sex-specific effects of NMDAR antagonists and on the differential effects of the R- and S-ket enantiomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chitra Vinnakota
- Department of PsychiatryMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
| | - Anna Schroeder
- Department of PsychiatryMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
| | - Xin Du
- Department of PsychiatryMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
| | - Kazutaka Ikeda
- Addictive Substance ProjectTokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical ScienceTokyoJapan
| | - Soichiro Ide
- Addictive Substance ProjectTokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical ScienceTokyoJapan
| | - Masayoshi Mishina
- Brain Science Laboratory, The Research Organization of Science and TechnologyRitsumeikan UniversityKusatsuJapan
| | - Matthew Hudson
- Department of NeuroscienceMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
| | | | - Suresh Sundram
- Department of PsychiatryMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
- Mental Health ProgramMonash HealthClaytonVictoriaAustralia
| | - Rachel Anne Hill
- Department of PsychiatryMonash UniversityClaytonVictoriaAustralia
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Hales CA, Stuart SA, Griffiths J, Bartlett J, Arban R, Hengerer B, Robinson ES. Investigating neuropsychological and reward-related deficits in a chronic corticosterone-induced model of depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2023; 147:105953. [PMID: 36334546 PMCID: PMC10465973 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Chronic stress is a known risk factor for the development of major depression (MDD) and is commonly used to induce a depression-like phenotype in rodents. Similar phenotypic effects are also observed in rodents when treated chronically with the stress hormone corticosterone. In this study, we investigated the neuropsychological consequences of chronic corticosterone treatment in male rats using two translational rodent assays of affective bias, the judgement bias task (JBT) and affective bias test (ABT). We also used the reward learning assay (RLA) and sucrose preference test (SPT) to quantify reward-related behaviours. Negative biases in decision-making were observed in the chronic corticosterone-treated group but only when the treatment was given shortly before each behavioural session. The same dose of corticosterone, when given daily after completion of the behavioural session had no effects. Chronic corticosterone treatment did not potentiate negative affective biases in the ABT induced by either an acute pharmacological or stress manipulation but both reward learning and reward sensitivity were blunted. Analysis of the brain tissue from animals receiving chronic corticosterone found reduced hippocampal neurogenesis consistent with previous studies suggesting corticosterone-induced neurotrophic deficits. Taken together, these data suggest chronic corticosterone treatment induces neuropsychological effects related to changes in reward learning, memory and negative biases in decision making, but these decision-making biases depend on whether rewarding outcomes were experienced during the acute effects of the drug. These findings suggest an important interaction between psychological and biological factors resulting in negative biases in decision-making in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire A Hales
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK; Department of Psychology, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Sarah A Stuart
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Jennifer Griffiths
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Julia Bartlett
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Roberto Arban
- CNS Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma Gmbh & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Bastian Hengerer
- CNS Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma Gmbh & Co. KG, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Emma Sj Robinson
- University of Bristol, School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK.
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Hayes J, Laursen B, Eneberg E, Kehler J, Rasmussen LK, Langgard M, Bastlund JF, Gerdjikov TV. Phosphodiesterase type 1 inhibition alters medial prefrontal cortical activity during goal-driven behaviour and partially reverses neurophysiological deficits in the rat phencyclidine model of schizophrenia. Neuropharmacology 2021; 186:108454. [PMID: 33444639 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Positive modulation of cAMP signalling by phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors has recently been explored as a potential target for the reversal of cognitive and behavioural deficits implicating the corticoaccumbal circuit. Previous studies show that PDE type 1 isoform B (PDE1B) inhibition may improve memory function in rodent models; however, the contribution of PDE1B inhibition to impulsivity, attentional and motivational functions as well as its neurophysiological effects have not been investigated. To address this, we recorded single unit activity in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) in Lister Hooded rats treated with the PDE1B inhibitor Lu AF64386 and tested in the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT). We also asked whether PDE1B inhibition modulates neurophysiological deficits produced by subchronic phencyclidine (PCP) treatment, a rat pharmacological model of schizophrenia. Lu AF64386 significantly affected behavioural parameters consistent with a reduction in goal-directed behaviour, however without affecting accuracy. Additionally, it reduced mPFC neuronal activity. Pre-treatment with PCP did not affect behavioural parameters, however it significantly disrupted overall neuronal firing while increasing phasic responses to reward-predicting cues and disrupting mPFC-NAc cross-talk. The latter two effects were reversed by Lu AF64386. These findings suggest PDE1B inhibition may be beneficial in disorders implicating a dysfunction of the mPFC-NAc network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Hayes
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Jan Kehler
- Molecular Discovery and Innovation, Lundbeck A/S, Denmark
| | | | | | | | - Todor V Gerdjikov
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, United Kingdom.
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Ang MJ, Lee S, Kim JC, Kim SH, Moon C. Behavioral Tasks Evaluating Schizophrenia-like Symptoms in Animal Models: A Recent Update. Curr Neuropharmacol 2021; 19:641-664. [PMID: 32798374 PMCID: PMC8573744 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x18666200814175114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness that affects more than 21 million people worldwide. Both genetics and the environment play a role in its etiology and pathogenesis. Symptoms of schizophrenia are mainly categorized into positive, negative, and cognitive. One major approach to identify and understand these diverse symptoms in humans has been to study behavioral phenotypes in a range of animal models of schizophrenia. OBJECTIVE We aimed to provide a comprehensive review of the behavioral tasks commonly used for measuring schizophrenia-like behaviors in rodents together with an update of the recent study findings. METHODS Articles describing phenotypes of schizophrenia-like behaviors in various animal models were collected through a literature search in Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, with a focus on advances over the last 10 years. RESULTS Numerous studies have used a range of animal models and behavioral paradigms of schizophrenia to develop antipsychotic drugs for improved therapeutics. In establishing animal models of schizophrenia, the candidate models were evaluated for schizophrenia-like behaviors using several behavioral tasks for positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms designed to verify human symptoms of schizophrenia. Such validated animal models were provided as rapid preclinical avenues for drug testing and mechanistic studies. CONCLUSION Based on the most recent advances in the field, it is apparent that a myriad of behavior tests are needed to confirm and evaluate the congruency of animal models with the numerous behaviors and clinical signs exhibited by patients with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Changjong Moon
- Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Animal Behavior, College of Veterinary Medicine and BK21 Plus Project Team, Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 61186, South Korea, Tel: +82-62-530-2838; E-mail:
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Guessoum SB, Le Strat Y, Dubertret C, Mallet J. A transnosographic approach of negative symptoms pathophysiology in schizophrenia and depressive disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2020; 99:109862. [PMID: 31927053 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.109862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Negative Symptoms (blunted affect, alogia, anhedonia, avolition and asociality) are observed in schizophrenia but also in depressive disorders. OBJECTIVE To gather cognitive, neuroanatomical, neurofunctional and neurobiological knowledge of negative symptoms in studies on schizophrenia, depressive disorder, and transnosographic studies. RESULTS Blunted affect in schizophrenia is characterized by amygdala hyperactivation and frontal hypoactivation, also found in depressive disorder. Mirror neurons, may be related to blunted affect in schizophrenia. Alogia may be related to cognitive dysfunction and basal ganglia area impairments in schizophrenia. Data surrounding alogia in depressive disorder is scarce; wider speech deficits are often studied instead. Consummatory Anhedonia may be less affected than Anticipatory Anhedonia in schizophrenia. Anhedonia is associated with reward impairments and altered striatal functions in both diagnostics. Amotivation is associated with Corticostriatal Hypoactivation in both disorders. Anhedonia and amotivation are transnosographically associated with dopamine dysregulation. Asociality may be related to oxytocin. CONCLUSION Pathophysiological hypotheses are specific to each dimension of negative symptoms and overlap across diagnostic boundaries, possibly underpinning the observed clinical continuum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sélim Benjamin Guessoum
- AP-HP; Psychiatry Department, University Hospital Louis Mourier; University of Paris, 178 rue des Renouillers, 92700 Colombes, France; INSERM UMR1266, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurosciences of Paris (IPNP), 102-108 rue de la Santé, 75014 Paris, France
| | - Yann Le Strat
- AP-HP; Psychiatry Department, University Hospital Louis Mourier; University of Paris, 178 rue des Renouillers, 92700 Colombes, France; INSERM UMR1266, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurosciences of Paris (IPNP), 102-108 rue de la Santé, 75014 Paris, France.
| | - Caroline Dubertret
- AP-HP; Psychiatry Department, University Hospital Louis Mourier; University of Paris, 178 rue des Renouillers, 92700 Colombes, France; INSERM UMR1266, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurosciences of Paris (IPNP), 102-108 rue de la Santé, 75014 Paris, France.
| | - Jasmina Mallet
- AP-HP; Psychiatry Department, University Hospital Louis Mourier; University of Paris, 178 rue des Renouillers, 92700 Colombes, France; INSERM UMR1266, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurosciences of Paris (IPNP), 102-108 rue de la Santé, 75014 Paris, France.
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Lewis LR, Benn A, Dwyer DM, Robinson ESJ. Affective biases and their interaction with other reward-related deficits in rodent models of psychiatric disorders. Behav Brain Res 2019; 372:112051. [PMID: 31276704 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the leading global causes of disability. Symptoms of MDD can vary person to person, and current treatments often fail to alleviate the poor quality of life that patients experience. One of the two core diagnostic criteria for MDD is the loss of interest in previously pleasurable activities, which suggests a link between the disease aetiology and reward processing. Cognitive impairments are also common in patients with MDD, and more recently, emotional processing deficits known as affective biases have been recognised as a key feature of the disorder. Studies in animals have found similar affective biases related to reward. In this review we consider these affective biases in the context of other reward-related deficits and examine how affective biases associated with learning and memory may interact with the wider behavioural symptoms seen in MDD. We discuss recent developments in how analogues of affective biases and other aspects of reward processing can be assessed in rodents, as well as how these behaviours are influenced in models of MDD. We subsequently discuss evidence for the neurobiological mechanisms contributing to one or more reward-related deficits in preclinical models of MDD, identified using these behavioural assays. We consider how the relationships between these selective behavioural assays and the neurobiological mechanisms for affective bias and reward processing could be used to identify potential treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy R Lewis
- School of Psychology, Tower Building, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, United Kingdom.
| | - Abigail Benn
- University of Oxford, Department of Experimental Psychology, Tinsley Building, Marsden Road, Oxford, OX1 3TA, United Kingdom.
| | - Dominic M Dwyer
- School of Psychology, Tower Building, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, United Kingdom.
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TD, United Kingdom.
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8
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Robinson ESJ. Translational new approaches for investigating mood disorders in rodents and what they may reveal about the underlying neurobiology of major depressive disorder. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 373:rstb.2017.0036. [PMID: 29352034 PMCID: PMC5790833 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Mood disorders represent one of society's most costly and challenging health burdens. The drug treatments used today were initially discovered serendipitously in the 1950s. Animal models were then developed based on the ability of these drugs to alter specific behaviours. These models have played a major role in the development of the second generation of antidepressants. However, their use has been heavily criticized, particularly in relation to whether they recapitulate similar underlying biology to the psychiatric disorder they are proposed to represent. This article considers our work in the field of affective bias and the development of a translational research programme to try to develop and validate better animal models. We discuss whether the new data that have arisen from these studies support an alternative perspective on the underlying neurobiological processes that lead to major depressive disorder (MDD). Specifically, this article will consider whether a neuropsychological mechanism involving affective biases plays a causal role in the development of MDD and its associated emotional and behavioural symptoms. These animal studies also raise the possibility that neuropsychological mechanisms involving affective biases are a precursor to, rather than a consequence of, the neurotrophic changes linked to MDD. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Of mice and mental health: facilitating dialogue between basic and clinical neuroscientists’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
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Cadinu D, Grayson B, Podda G, Harte MK, Doostdar N, Neill JC. NMDA receptor antagonist rodent models for cognition in schizophrenia and identification of novel drug treatments, an update. Neuropharmacology 2018; 142:41-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Revised: 10/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Abstract
Loss of interest in rewarding activities is a hallmark of many psychiatric disorders and may be relevant for neurodegenerative disorders and patients suffering from brain injury. There is increasing evidence that deficits in reward-related behaviour are more complex than previously described. The traditional view of anhedonia as 'the inability to experience pleasure' may be too limited to fully encompass the types of reward deficit observed in these patients. Developments in methods to measure different aspects of reward processing in humans and animals are starting to provide insights into the complexity of this behaviour. In this article we consider the rodent models which have traditionally been used to study reward deficits in psychiatric disorders and consider their limitations relative to clinical findings. We then discuss work where methods derived from human neuropsychological tests are providing insights into the complexity of reward-related behaviour. Specifically, we consider tasks which investigate different aspects of reward-related behaviour focusing on learning and memory as well as decision-making and consider what these may mean in terms of how we model reward deficits in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe L Slaney
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 4PX, UK
| | - Claire A Hales
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 4PX, UK
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 4PX, UK
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11
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Male rats treated with subchronic PCP show intact olfaction and enhanced interest for a social odour in the olfactory habituation/dishabituation test. Behav Brain Res 2018; 345:13-20. [PMID: 29477413 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Revised: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The olfactory system participates in many sensory processes, and olfactory endophenotypes appear in a variety of neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, depression and schizophrenia. Social withdrawal is a core negative symptom of schizophrenia and animal models have proven to be invaluable for studying the neurobiological mechanisms and cognitive processes behind the formation of social relationships. The subchronic phencyclidine (PCP) rat model is a validated model for negative symptoms of schizophrenia, such as impaired sociability. However, the complete range of social behaviour and deficits in the model are still not fully understood. Intact rodent olfaction is essential for a wide range of social behaviour and disrupted olfactory function could have severe effects on social communication and recognition. In order to examine the olfactory ability of male rats treated with subchronic PCP, we conducted an olfactory habituation/dishabituation test including both non-social and social odours. The subchronic PCP-treated rats successfully recognized and discriminated among the odours, indicative of intact olfaction. Interestingly, the subchronic PCP-treated rats showed greater interest for a novel social odour compared to the saline-treated rats and the rationale remains to be elucidated. Our data indicate that subchronic PCP treatment does not disrupt olfactory function in male rats. By ruling out impaired olfaction as cause for the poor social interaction performance in subchronic PCP-treated rats, our data supports the use of NMDA receptor antagonists to model the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
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Slaney C, Hinchcliffe JK, Robinson ESJ. Translational Shifts in Preclinical Models of Depression: Implications for Biomarkers for Improved Treatments. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2018; 40:169-193. [PMID: 29696602 PMCID: PMC7614182 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2018_44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the neurobiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) remains one of the major challenges in neuroscience. The disease is heterogeneous in nature, and patients present with a varied symptom profile. Studies seeking to identify biomarkers for MDD diagnosis and treatment have not yet found any one candidate which achieves sufficient sensitivity and specificity. In this article, we consider whether neuropsychological impairments, specifically affective biases, could provide a behavioural biomarker. Affective biases are observed when emotional states influence cognitive function. These biases have been shown to influence a number of different cognitive domains with some specific deficits observed in MDD. It has also been possible to use these neuropsychological tests to inform the development of translational tasks for non-human species. The results from studies in rodents suggest that quantification of affective biases is feasible and may provide a reliable method to predict antidepressant efficacy as well as pro-depressant risk. Animal studies suggest that affective state-induced biases in learning and memory operate over a different time course to biases influencing decision-making. The implications for these differences in terms of task validity and future ideas relating to affective biases and MDD are discussed. We also describe our most recent studies which have shown that depression-like phenotypes share a common deficit in reward-related learning and memory which we refer to as a reward-induced positive bias. This deficit is dissociable from more typical measures of hedonic behaviour and motivation for reward and may represent an important and distinct form of reward deficit linked to MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe Slaney
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol, UK
| | - Justyna K Hinchcliffe
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol, UK
| | - Emma S J Robinson
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol, UK.
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13
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Asif-Malik A, Dautan D, Young AMJ, Gerdjikov TV. Altered cortico-striatal crosstalk underlies object recognition memory deficits in the sub-chronic phencyclidine model of schizophrenia. Brain Struct Funct 2017; 222:3179-3190. [PMID: 28293729 PMCID: PMC5585296 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-017-1393-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The neural mechanisms underlying cognitive deficits in schizophrenia are poorly understood. Sub-chronic treatment with the NMDA antagonist phencyclidine (PCP) produces cognitive abnormalities in rodents that reliably model aspects of the neurocognitive alterations observed in schizophrenia. Given that network activity across regions encompassing medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) plays a significant role in motivational and cognitive tasks, we measured activity across cortico-striatal pathways in PCP-treated rats to characterize neural enabling and encoding of task performance in a novel object recognition task. We found that PCP treatment impaired task performance and concurrently (1) reduced tonic NAc neuronal activity, (2) desynchronized cross-activation of mPFC and NAc neurons, and (3) prevented the increase in mPFC and NAc neural activity associated with the exploration of a novel object in relation to a familiar object. Taken together, these observations reveal key neuronal and network-level adaptations underlying PCP-induced cognitive deficits, which may contribute to the emergence of cognitive abnormalities in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aman Asif-Malik
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 9HN, UK
| | - Daniel Dautan
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Andrew M J Young
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 9HN, UK
| | - Todor V Gerdjikov
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 9HN, UK.
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14
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Stuart SA, Wood CM, Robinson ESJ. Using the affective bias test to predict drug-induced negative affect: implications for drug safety. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:3200-3210. [PMID: 28782244 PMCID: PMC5595760 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose Predicting the risk of drug‐induced adverse psychiatric effects is important but currently not possible in non‐human species. We investigated whether the affective bias test (ABT) could provide a preclinical method with translational and predictive validity. Experimental Approach The ABT is a bowl‐digging task, which quantifies biases associated with learning and memory. Rats encounter independent learning experiences, on separate days, under either acute manipulations (e.g. pro‐depressant vs. control) or different absolute reward values (e.g. high vs. low). A bias is observed during a preference test when an animal's choices reflect their prior experience. We investigated the effects of putative pro‐depressant drug treatments following acute or chronic administration on the formation of an affective bias or reward‐induced positive bias respectively. Key Results The immunomodulators LPS (10 μg·kg−1), corticosterone (10 and 30 mg·kg−1) and IFN‐α (100 U·kg−1) induced a negative affective bias following acute treatment. Tetrabenazine (1 mg·kg−1) also induced a negative bias, but no effects were observed with varenicline, carbamazepine or montelukast. Chronic treatment with IFN‐α (100 U·kg−1) and retinoic acid (10 mg·kg−1) impaired the formation of a reward‐induced positive bias but did not alter sucrose preference test (SPT). Conclusions and Implications The ABT has the potential to provide a novel approach to predict pro‐depressant risk in a non‐human species. Negative biases induced by acute treatment in the standard version of the task may also predict longer‐term effects on reward processing as shown by the deficit in reward‐induced positive bias following chronic treatment, an effect distinct from anhedonia in the SPT. Linked Articles This article is part of a themed section on Pharmacology of Cognition: a Panacea for Neuropsychiatric Disease? To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.19/issuetoc
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Stuart
- School of Physiology and Pharmacology, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - C M Wood
- School of Physiology and Pharmacology, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - E S J Robinson
- School of Physiology and Pharmacology, Biomedical Sciences, University Walk, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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15
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Reynolds GP, Neill JC. Modelling the cognitive and neuropathological features of schizophrenia with phencyclidine. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30:1141-1144. [PMID: 27624147 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116667668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Here, Reynolds and Neill describe the studies that preceded and followed publication of this paper, which reported a deficit in parvalbumin (PV), a calcium-binding protein found in GABA interneurons known to be reduced in schizophrenia patients, in conjunction with a deficit in reversal learning in an animal model for schizophrenia. This publication resulted from common research interests: Reynolds in the neurotransmitter pathology of schizophrenia, and Neill in developing animal models for schizophrenia symptomatology. The animal model, using a sub-chronic dosing regimen (sc) with the non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist PCP (phencyclidine), evolved from previous work in rats (for PCP) and primates (for cognition). The hypothesis of a PV deficit came from emerging evidence for a GABAergic dysfunction in schizophrenia, in particular a deficit in PV-containing GABA interneurons. Since this original publication, a PV deficit has been identified in other animal models for schizophrenia, and the PV field has expanded considerably. This includes mechanistic work attempting to identify the link between oxidative stress and GABAergic dysfunction using this scPCP model, and assessment of the potential of the PV neuron as a target for new antipsychotic drugs. The latter has included development of a molecule targeting KV3.1 channels located on PV-containing GABA interneurons which can restore both PV expression and cognitive deficits in the scPCP model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin P Reynolds
- Sheffield Hallam University, Biomolecular Sciences Research Centre, Sheffield, UK
| | - Joanna C Neill
- Manchester Pharmacy School, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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16
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Szűcs E, Dvorácskó S, Tömböly C, Büki A, Kékesi G, Horváth G, Benyhe S. Decreased CB receptor binding and cannabinoid signaling in three brain regions of a rat model of schizophrenia. Neurosci Lett 2016; 633:87-93. [PMID: 27639959 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Revised: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a serious mental health disorder characterized by several behavioral and biochemicel abnormalities. In a previous study we have shown that mu-opioid (MOP) receptor signaling is impaired in specific brain regions of our three-hit animal model of schizophrenia. Since the cannabinoid system is significantly influenced in schizophrenic patients, in the present work we investigated cannabinoid (CB) receptor binding and G-protein activation in cortical, subcortical and cerebellar regions of control and 'schizophrenic' rats. Cannabinoid agonist (WIN-55,212-2 mesylate) mediated G-protein activation was consistently decreased in all areas tested, and the difference was extremely significant in membranes prepared from the cerebellum. Interestingly, the cerebellar activity of WIN-55,212-2 stimulated G-proteins was substantially higher than those of cerebral cortex and subcortical region in control animals, indicating a primordial role of the cannabinoid system in the cerebellum. At the level of radioligand binding, the affinities of the CB receptors were also markedly decreased in the model animals. Capacity of the [3H]WIN-55,212-2 binding was only higher in the cerebellum of 'schizophrenic' model rats. Taken together, in all three brain areas of model rats both cannabinoid receptor binding and cannabinoid agonist-mediated G-protein activation were regularly decreased. Our results revealed that besides the opioids, the endocannabinoid - cannabis receptor system also shows impairment in our rat model, increasing its face validity and translational utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edina Szűcs
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Center, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-6726 Szeged, Temesvári krt. 62., Hungary(1)
| | - Szabolcs Dvorácskó
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Center, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-6726 Szeged, Temesvári krt. 62., Hungary(1)
| | - Csaba Tömböly
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Center, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-6726 Szeged, Temesvári krt. 62., Hungary(1)
| | - Alexandra Büki
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Dóm tér 10., Hungary
| | - Gabriella Kékesi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Dóm tér 10., Hungary
| | - Gyöngyi Horváth
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, H-6720 Szeged, Dóm tér 10., Hungary
| | - Sándor Benyhe
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Center, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-6726 Szeged, Temesvári krt. 62., Hungary(1).
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