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Raj M K, Priyadarshani J, Karan P, Bandyopadhyay S, Bhattacharya S, Chakraborty S. Bio-inspired microfluidics: A review. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2023; 17:051503. [PMID: 37781135 PMCID: PMC10539033 DOI: 10.1063/5.0161809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Biomicrofluidics, a subdomain of microfluidics, has been inspired by several ideas from nature. However, while the basic inspiration for the same may be drawn from the living world, the translation of all relevant essential functionalities to an artificially engineered framework does not remain trivial. Here, we review the recent progress in bio-inspired microfluidic systems via harnessing the integration of experimental and simulation tools delving into the interface of engineering and biology. Development of "on-chip" technologies as well as their multifarious applications is subsequently discussed, accompanying the relevant advancements in materials and fabrication technology. Pointers toward new directions in research, including an amalgamated fusion of data-driven modeling (such as artificial intelligence and machine learning) and physics-based paradigm, to come up with a human physiological replica on a synthetic bio-chip with due accounting of personalized features, are suggested. These are likely to facilitate physiologically replicating disease modeling on an artificially engineered biochip as well as advance drug development and screening in an expedited route with the minimization of animal and human trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiran Raj M
- Department of Applied Mechanics and Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600036, India
| | - Jyotsana Priyadarshani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Biomechanics Section (BMe), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 300, 3001 Louvain, Belgium
| | - Pratyaksh Karan
- Géosciences Rennes Univ Rennes, CNRS, Géosciences Rennes, UMR 6118, 35000 Rennes, France
| | - Saumyadwip Bandyopadhyay
- Advanced Technology Development Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India
| | - Soumya Bhattacharya
- Achira Labs Private Limited, 66b, 13th Cross Rd., Dollar Layout, 3–Phase, JP Nagar, Bangalore, Karnataka 560078, India
| | - Suman Chakraborty
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302, India
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2
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Activation of Host Cellular Signaling and Mechanism of Enterovirus 71 Viral Proteins Associated with Hand, Foot and Mouth Disease. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102190. [PMID: 36298746 PMCID: PMC9609926 DOI: 10.3390/v14102190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteroviruses are members of the Picornaviridae family consisting of human enterovirus groups A, B, C, and D as well as nonhuman enteroviruses. Human enterovirus type 71 (EV71) has emerged as a major cause of viral encephalitis, known as hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), in children worldwide, especially in the Asia-Pacific region. EV71 and coxsackievirus A16 are the two viruses responsible for HFMD which are members of group A enteroviruses. The identified EV71 receptors provide useful information for understanding viral replication and tissue tropism. Host factors interact with the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) of EV71 to regulate viral translation. However, the specific molecular features of the respective viral genome that determine virulence remain unclear. Although a vaccine is currently approved, there is no effective therapy for treating EV71-infected patients. Therefore, understanding the host-pathogen interaction could provide knowledge in viral pathogenesis and further benefits to anti-viral therapy development. The aim of this study was to investigate the latest findings about the interaction of viral ligands with the host receptors as well as the activation of immunerelated signaling pathways for innate immunity and the involvement of different cytokines and chemokines during host-pathogen interaction. The study also examined the roles of viral proteins, mainly 2A and 3C protease, interferons production and their inhibitory effects.
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Antidepressant Sertraline Is a Broad-Spectrum Inhibitor of Enteroviruses Targeting Viral Entry through Neutralization of Endolysosomal Acidification. Viruses 2022; 14:v14010109. [PMID: 35062313 PMCID: PMC8780434 DOI: 10.3390/v14010109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is an etiological agent of hand foot and mouth disease and can also cause neurological complications in young children. However, there are no approved drugs as of yet to treat EV71 infections. In this study, we conducted antiviral drug screening by using a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drug library. We identified five drugs that showed dose-dependent inhibition of viral replication. Sertraline was further characterized because it exhibited the most potent antiviral activity with the highest selectivity index among the five hits. The antiviral activity of sertraline was noted for other EV serotypes. The drug’s antiviral effect is not likely associated with its approved indications as an antidepressant and its mode-of-action as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. The time-of-addition assay revealed that sertraline inhibited an EV71 infection at the entry stage. We also showed that sertraline partitioned into acidic compartments, such as endolysosomes, to neutralize the low pH levels. In agreement with the findings, the antiviral effect of sertraline could be greatly relieved by exposing virus-infected cells to extracellular low-pH culture media. Ultimately, we have identified a use for an FDA-approved antidepressant in broad-spectrum EV inhibition by blocking viral entry through the alkalization of the endolysosomal route.
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Li Y, Shen S, Guo H, Zhang Z, Zhang L, Yang Q, Gao Y, Niu J, Wei W. Enterovirus Infection Restricts Long Interspersed Element 1 Retrotransposition. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:706241. [PMID: 34733242 PMCID: PMC8559978 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.706241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Long interspersed element 1 (LINE-1 or L1) is the only active autonomous retrotransposon in the human genome that can serve as an endogenous upstream activator of cytoplasmic nucleic acid sensing pathways to elicit an antiviral immune response. In this study, we investigated the influence of enteroviral infection on L1 mobility. The results showed that infection with different enteroviruses, both EV-D68 and EV-A71, blocked L1 transposition. We screened diverse viral accessory proteins for L1 activity and identified EV-D68 2A, 3A, 3C, and EV-A71 ORF2p proteins as viral L1 inhibitors. EV-D68 2A suppressed L1 mobility by expression suppression of L1 proteins. Viral proteins 3A and 3C restricted ORF2p-mediated L1 reverse transcription in isolated L1 ribonucleoproteins. The newly identified enteroviral protein ORF2p inhibited the expression of L1 ORF1p. Altogether, our findings shed light on the strict modulation of L1 retrotransposons during enterovirus replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Siyu Shen
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Haoran Guo
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China.,Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of Ministry of Education, Institute of Translational Medicine, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zhe Zhang
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Lili Zhang
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Qingran Yang
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yanhang Gao
- Department of Hepatology, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Junqi Niu
- Department of Hepatology, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China.,Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of Ministry of Education, Institute of Translational Medicine, First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Khanna M, Gautam A, Rajput R, Sharma L. Natural Products as a Paradigm for the Treatment of Coxsackievirus - induced Myocarditis. Curr Top Med Chem 2020; 20:607-616. [PMID: 31995007 DOI: 10.2174/1568026620666200129094516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 09/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), a member of the Picornaviridae family, is considered to be one of the most important infectious agents to cause virus-induced myocarditis. Despite improvements in studying viral pathology, structure and molecular biology, as well as diagnosis of this disease, there is still no virus-specific drug in clinical use. Structural and nonstructural proteins produced during the coxsackievirus life cycle have been identified as potential targets for blocking viral replication at the step of attachment, entry, uncoating, RNA and protein synthesis by synthetic or natural compounds. Moreover, WIN (for Winthrop) compounds and application of nucleic-acid based strategies were shown to target viral capsid, entry and viral proteases, but have not reached to the clinical trials as a successful antiviral agent. There is an urgent need for diverse molecular libraries for phenotype-selective and high-throughput screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhu Khanna
- Department of Microbiology (Virology Unit), Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India
| | - Anju Gautam
- Department of Microbiology (Virology Unit), Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India
| | - Roopali Rajput
- Department of Microbiology (Virology Unit), Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India
| | - Latika Sharma
- Department of Microbiology (Virology Unit), Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India
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6
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Wang H, Li Y. Recent Progress on Functional Genomics Research of Enterovirus 71. Virol Sin 2018; 34:9-21. [PMID: 30552635 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-018-0071-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is one of the main pathogens that causes hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD). HFMD caused by EV71 infection is mostly self-limited; however, some infections can cause severe neurological diseases, such as aseptic meningitis, brain stem encephalitis, and even death. There are still no effective clinical drugs used for the prevention and treatment of HFMD. Studying EV71 protein function is essential for elucidating the EV71 replication process and developing anti-EV71 drugs and vaccines. In this review, we summarized the recent progress in the studies of EV71 non-coding regions (5' UTR and 3' UTR) and all structural and nonstructural proteins, especially the key motifs involving in viral infection, replication, and immune regulation. This review will promote our understanding of EV71 virus replication and pathogenesis, and will facilitate the development of novel drugs or vaccines to treat EV71.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiqiang Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Antimicrobial Agents, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Yuhuan Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Antimicrobial Agents, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China. .,NHC Key Laboratory of Biotechnology of Antibiotics, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100050, China.
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7
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Toll-Like Receptor 3 Is Involved in Detection of Enterovirus A71 Infection and Targeted by Viral 2A Protease. Viruses 2018; 10:v10120689. [PMID: 30563052 PMCID: PMC6315976 DOI: 10.3390/v10120689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 11/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) has emerged as a major pathogen causing hand, foot, and mouth disease, as well as neurological disorders. The host immune response affects the outcomes of EV-A71 infection, leading to either resolution or disease progression. However, the mechanisms of how the mammalian innate immune system detects EV-A71 infection to elicit antiviral immunity remain elusive. Here, we report that the Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) is a key viral RNA sensor for sensing EV-A71 infection to trigger antiviral immunity. Expression of TLR3 in HEK293 cells enabled the cells to sense EV-A71 infection, leading to type I, IFN-mediated antiviral immunity. Viral double-stranded RNA derived from EV-A71 infection was a key ligand for TLR3 detection. Silencing of TLR3 in mouse and human primary immune cells impaired the activation of IFN-β upon EV-A71 infection, thus reinforcing the importance of the TLR3 pathway in defending against EV-A71 infection. Our results further demonstrated that TLR3 was a target of EV-A71 infection. EV-A71 protease 2A was implicated in the downregulation of TLR3. Together, our results not only demonstrate the importance of the TLR3 pathway in response to EV-A71 infection, but also reveal the involvement of EV-A71 protease 2A in subverting TLR3-mediated antiviral defenses.
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8
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Ling H, Yang P, Hou H, Sun Y. Structural view of the 2A protease from human rhinovirus C15. Acta Crystallogr F Struct Biol Commun 2018; 74:255-261. [PMID: 29633974 PMCID: PMC5894110 DOI: 10.1107/s2053230x18003382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of outbreaks of the common cold are caused by rhinoviruses. The 2A protease (2Apro) of human rhinoviruses (HRVs) is known to play important roles in the propagation of the virus and the modulation of host signal pathways to facilitate viral replication. The 2Apro from human rhinovirus C15 (HRV-C15) has been expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by affinity chromatography, ion-exchange chromatography and gel-filtration chromatography. The crystals diffracted to 2.6 Å resolution. The structure was solved by molecular replacement using the structure of 2Apro from coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) as the search model. The structure contains a conserved His-Asp-Cys catalytic triad and a Zn2+-binding site. Comparison with other 2Apro structures from enteroviruses reveals that the substrate-binding cleft of 2Apro from HRV-C15 exhibits a more open conformation, which presumably favours substrate binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ling
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, People’s Republic of China
| | - Pan Yang
- National Laboratory of Macromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hai Hou
- School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yao Sun
- National Laboratory of Macromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People’s Republic of China
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9
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Development of a fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based intracellular assay to identify novel enterovirus 71 antivirals. Arch Virol 2016; 162:713-720. [PMID: 27873071 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-016-3143-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/30/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is considered one of the most virulent pathogens in the family Picornaviridae. However, there have been no effective treatments for the severe complications caused by EV71. Development of new drugs against targets that are essential for viral replication often requires screening large collections of compounds, for which a high-throughput screening platform is needed. In this study, a drug-screening platform was developed based on a genetically engineered cell line that displays fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and shows a real-time and quantifiable impairment of FRET upon EV71 infection. A library of small molecules consisting of 1280 compounds with defined bioactivities was used for screening drugs with anti-EV71 activity; accurate, rapid, and robust results were obtained from this screening procedure. Ten drugs were identified in the primary screening, and their antiviral activities were indicated by dose-dependent elevation of FRET. Among these, AC-93253, mitoxantrone and N-bromoacetamide had not been reported as enterovirus inhibitors, and it was confirmed that they were able to suppress viral yields in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, these studies demonstrate the feasibility of this FRET-based platform for efficient screening and identification of novel compounds with activity against EV71 infection.
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10
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Hou HY, Lu WW, Wu KY, Lin CW, Kung SH. Idarubicin is a broad-spectrum enterovirus replication inhibitor that selectively targets the virus internal ribosomal entry site. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:1122-1133. [DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hsin-Yu Hou
- Department of Biotechnology and Laboratory Science in Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Wen-Wen Lu
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Cheng Hsin General Hospital, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Kuan-Yin Wu
- Department of Biotechnology and Laboratory Science in Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Cheng-Wen Lin
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Szu-Hao Kung
- Department of Biotechnology and Laboratory Science in Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
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11
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Wang C, Shi Y, Wang J, Pang J, Xia XH. Ultrasensitive protein concentration detection on a micro/nanofluidic enrichment chip using fluorescence quenching. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:6835-6841. [PMID: 25775007 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b00383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A micro/nanofluidic enrichment device combined with the Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) technique has been developed for sensitive detection of trace quantities of protein. In this approach, sample protein is first adsorbed on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to occupy part of the AuNP surface. Then, dye-labeled protein is added, which adsorbs to the residual active sites of the AuNP surface, saturating the AuNP surface with protein molecules. The unadsorbed dye-labeled protein remains in a free state in the system. Keeping a fixed amount of dye-labeled protein, a high concentration of sample protein leads to more free dye-labeled protein molecules remaining in the system, and thus a larger photoluminescence signal. Under the action of an electric field, the free dye-labeled protein molecules can be efficiently enriched in front of the nanochannel of a micro/nanofluidic chip, which greatly amplifies the magnitude of the photoluminescence and improves the detection sensitivity. As a demonstration, bovine serum albumin (BSA) and fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dog serum albumin (FITC-DSA) are used as sample and fluorescent proteins, respectively. Using the proposed strategy, a detection limit of BSA as low as 2.5 pg/mL can be achieved, which is more than 10(3) times lower than the reported minimums in most sensitive commercial protein quantification methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Wang
- †State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, Nanjing 210093, China
- ‡Key Laboratory of Biomedical Functional Materials, Department of Physical Chemistry, School of Science, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Yi Shi
- †State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Jiong Wang
- †State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Jie Pang
- †State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Xing-Hua Xia
- †State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, Nanjing 210093, China
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12
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Fast and sensitive detection of protein concentration in mild environments. Talanta 2015; 135:102-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Revised: 12/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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13
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Stender AS, Marchuk K, Liu C, Sander S, Meyer MW, Smith EA, Neupane B, Wang G, Li J, Cheng JX, Huang B, Fang N. Single cell optical imaging and spectroscopy. Chem Rev 2013; 113:2469-527. [PMID: 23410134 PMCID: PMC3624028 DOI: 10.1021/cr300336e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony S. Stender
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Kyle Marchuk
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Chang Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Suzanne Sander
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Matthew W. Meyer
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Emily A. Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Bhanu Neupane
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Gufeng Wang
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Junjie Li
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | - Ji-Xin Cheng
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | - Bo Huang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Ning Fang
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
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14
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Frascione N, Gooch J, Daniel B. Enabling fluorescent biosensors for the forensic identification of body fluids. Analyst 2013; 138:7279-88. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an01372c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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15
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Zhang Y, Cao X, Xu Y, Liu Q, Zhang Y, Luo J, Liu X, Bai J. Tomographic imaging of ratiometric fluorescence resonance energy transfer in scattering media. APPLIED OPTICS 2012; 51:5044-5050. [PMID: 22858943 DOI: 10.1364/ao.51.005044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A method to visualize and quantify fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) in scattering media is proposed. It combines the ratiometric FRET method with fluorescence molecular tomography (FMT) in continuous wave (CW) mode. To evaluate the performance of the proposed method, experiments on a tissue-mimicking phantom are carried out. The results demonstrate that the proposed approach is capable of visualizing and quantifying the FRET distribution in scattering media, which implies the further application of the ratiometric assay in in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
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Yao J, Sun Y, Yang M, Duan Y. Chemistry, physics and biology of graphene-based nanomaterials: new horizons for sensing, imaging and medicine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2jm31632c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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17
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Sivaraman D, Biswas P, Cella LN, Yates MV, Chen W. Detecting RNA viruses in living mammalian cells by fluorescence microscopy. Trends Biotechnol 2011; 29:307-13. [PMID: 21529975 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2011.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2010] [Revised: 02/20/2011] [Accepted: 02/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Traditional methods that rely on viral isolation and culture techniques continue to be the gold standards used for detection of infectious viral particles. However, new techniques that rely on visualization of live cells can shed light on understanding virus-host interaction for early stage detection and potential drug discovery. Live-cell imaging techniques that incorporate fluorescent probes into viral components provide opportunities for understanding mRNA expression, interaction, and virus movement and localization. Other viral replication events inside a host cell can be exploited for non-invasive detection, such as single-virus tracking, which does not inhibit viral infectivity or cellular function. This review highlights some of the recent advances made using these novel approaches for visualization of viral entry and replication in live cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divya Sivaraman
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
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18
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Gawlik K, Remacle AG, Shiryaev SA, Golubkov VS, Ouyang M, Wang Y, Strongin AY. A femtomol range FRET biosensor reports exceedingly low levels of cell surface furin: implications for the processing of anthrax protective antigen. PLoS One 2010; 5:e11305. [PMID: 20585585 PMCID: PMC2892035 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2010] [Accepted: 06/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Furin, a specialized endoproteinase, transforms proproteins into biologically active proteins. Furin function is important for normal cells and also in multiple pathologies including malignancy and anthrax. Furin is believed to cycle between the Golgi compartment and the cell surface. Processing of anthrax protective antigen-83 (PA83) by the cells is considered thus far as evidence for the presence of substantial levels of cell-surface furin. To monitor furin, we designed a cleavage-activated FRET biosensor in which the Enhanced Cyan and Yellow Fluorescent Proteins were linked by the peptide sequence SNSRKKR↓STSAGP derived from anthrax PA83. Both because of the sensitivity and selectivity of the anthrax sequence to furin proteolysis and the FRET-based detection, the biosensor recorded the femtomolar levels of furin in the in vitro reactions and cell-based assays. Using the biosensor that was cell-impermeable because of its size and also by other relevant methods, we determined that exceedingly low levels, if any, of cell-surface furin are present in the intact cells and in the cells with the enforced furin overexpression. This observation was in a sharp contrast with the existing concepts about the furin presentation on cell surfaces and anthrax disease mechanism. We next demonstrated using cell-based tests that PA83, in fact, was processed by furin in the extracellular milieu and that only then the resulting PA63 bound the anthrax toxin cell-surface receptors. We also determined that the biosensor, but not the conventional peptide substrates, allowed continuous monitoring of furin activity in cancer cell extracts. Our results suggest that there are no physiologically-relevant levels of cell-surface furin and, accordingly, that the mechanisms of anthrax should be re-investigated. In addition, the availability of the biosensor is a foundation for non-invasive monitoring of furin activity in cancer cells. Conceptually, the biosensor we developed may serve as a prototype for other proteinase-activated biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Gawlik
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Albert G. Remacle
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Sergey A. Shiryaev
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Vladislav S. Golubkov
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Mingxing Ouyang
- Department of Bioengineering and the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Yingxiao Wang
- Department of Bioengineering and the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Alex Y. Strongin
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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19
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Varghese SS, Zhu Y, Davis TJ, Trowell SC. FRET for lab-on-a-chip devices - current trends and future prospects. LAB ON A CHIP 2010; 10:1355-64. [PMID: 20480105 DOI: 10.1039/b924271f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
This review focuses on the use of Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) to monitor intra- and intermolecular reactions occurring in microfluidic reactors. Microfluidic devices have recently been used for performing highly efficient and miniaturised biological assays for the analysis of biological entities such as cells, proteins and nucleic acids. Microfluidic assays are characterised by nanolitre to femtolitre reaction volumes, which necessitates the adoption of a sensitive optical detection scheme. FRET serves as a strong 'spectroscopic ruler' for elucidating the tertiary structure of biomolecules, as the efficiency of the non-radiative energy transfer is extremely sensitive to nanoscale changes in the separation between donor and acceptor markers attached to the biomolecule of interest. In this review, we will review the implementation of various microfluidic assays which employ FRET for diverse applications in the biomedical field, along with the advantages and disadvantages of the various approaches. The future prospects for development of microfluidic devices incorporating FRET detection will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smitha S Varghese
- CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering, PO Box 56, Highett, Melbourne, VIC 3190, Australia
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20
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Sanchez-Garcia E, Doerr M, Thiel W. QM/MM study of the absorption spectra of DsRed.M1 chromophores. J Comput Chem 2010; 31:1603-12. [PMID: 20014299 DOI: 10.1002/jcc.21443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We report geometries and vertical excitation energies for the red and green chromophores of the DsRed.M1 protein in the gas phase and in the solvated protein environment. Geometries are optimized using density functional theory (DFT, B3LYP functional) for the isolated chromophores and combined quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) methods for the protein (B3LYP/MM). Vertical excitation energies are computed using DFT/MRCI, OM2/MRCI, and TDDFT as QM methods. In the case of the red chromophore, there is a general blue shift in the excitation energies when going from the isolated chromophore to the protein, which is caused both by structural changes and by electrostatic interactions with the environment. For the lowest pipi* transition, these two factors contribute to a similar extent to the overall DFT/MRCI shift of 0.4 eV. An enlargement of the QM region to include active-site residues does not change the DFT/MRCI excitation energies much. The DFT/MRCI results are closest to experiment for both chromophores. OM2/MRCI and TDDFT overestimate the first vertical excitation energy by 0.3-0.5 and 0.2-0.4 eV, respectively, relative to the experimental or DFT/MRCI values. The experimental gap of 0.35 eV between the lowest pipi* excitation energies of the red (cis-acylimine) and green (trans-peptide) forms is well reproduced by DFT/MRCI and TDDFT (0.32 and 0.37 eV, respectively). A histogram spectrum for an equal mixture of the two forms, generated by OM2/MRCI calculations on 450 snapshots along molecular dynamics trajectories, matches the experimental spectrum quite well, with a gap of 0.23 eV and an overall blue shift of about 0.3 eV. DFT/MRCI appears as an attractive choice for calculating excitation energies in fluorescent proteins, without the shortcomings of TDDFT and computationally more affordable than CASSCF-based approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Sanchez-Garcia
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
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21
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Hsu YY, Liu YN, Lu WW, Kung SH. Visualizing and quantifying the differential cleavages of the eukaryotic translation initiation factors eIF4GI and eIF4GII in the enterovirus-infected cell. Biotechnol Bioeng 2009; 104:1142-52. [PMID: 19655339 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Enterovirus (EV) infection has been shown to cause a marked shutoff of host protein synthesis, an event mainly achieved through the cleavages of eukaryotic translation initiation factors eIF4GI and eIF4GII that are mediated by viral 2A protease (2A(pro)). Using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), we developed genetically encoded and FRET-based biosensors to visualize and quantify the specific proteolytic process in intact cells. This was accomplished by stable expression of a fusion substrate construct composed of the green fluorescent protein 2 (GFP(2)) and red fluorescent protein 2 (DsRed2), with a cleavage motif on eIF4GI or eIF4GII connected in between. The FRET biosensor showed a real-time and quantifiable impairment of FRET upon EV infection. Levels of the reduced FRET closely correlated with the cleavage kinetics of the endogenous eIF4Gs isoforms. The FRET impairments were solely attributed to 2A(pro) catalytic activity, irrespective of other viral-encoded protease, the activated caspases or general inhibition of protein synthesis in the EV-infected cells. The FRET biosensors appeared to be a universal platform for several related EVs. The spatiotemporal and quantitative imaging enabled by FRET can shed light on the protease-substrate behaviors in their normal milieu, permitting investigation into the molecular mechanism underlying virus-induced host translation inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueh-Ying Hsu
- Department of Biotechnology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C
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22
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Yeh HY, Yates MV, Chen W, Mulchandani A. Real-time molecular methods to detect infectious viruses. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2009; 20:49-54. [PMID: 19429491 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2009.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2008] [Accepted: 01/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Waterborne transmitted viruses pose a public health threat due to their stability in aquatic environment and the easy transmission with high morbidity rates at low infectious doses. Two major challenge of virus analysis include a lack of adequate information in infectivity and the inability to cultivate certain epidemiologically important viruses in vitro. The use of fluorescent probes in conjunction with fluorescence microscopy allows us to reveal dynamic interactions of the viruses with different cellular structures in living cells that are impossible to detect by immunological or PCR-based experiments. Real-time viral detection in vivo provides sufficient information regarding multiple steps in infection process at molecular level, which will be valuable for the prevention and control of viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiao-Yun Yeh
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, United States
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23
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Tsai MT, Cheng YH, Liu YN, Liao NC, Lu WW, Kung SH. Real-time monitoring of human enterovirus (HEV)-infected cells and anti-HEV 3C protease potency by fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53:748-55. [PMID: 19015331 PMCID: PMC2630644 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00841-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2008] [Revised: 08/14/2008] [Accepted: 11/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A real-time assay system that allows monitoring of intracellular human enterovirus (HEV) protease activity was established using the principle of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). It was accomplished by engineering cells to constitutively express a genetically encoded FRET probe. The FRET-based probe was designed to contain an enterovirus 71 3C protease (3C(pro)) cleavage motif flanked by the FRET pair composed of green fluorescent protein 2 and red fluorescent protein 2 (DsRed2). Efficient FRET from the stable line was detected in a real-time manner by fluorescence microscopy, and the disruption of FRET was readily monitored upon HEV infection. The level of the repressed FRET was proportional to the input virus titer and the infection duration as measured by the fluorometric method. The FRET biosensor cell line was also responsive to other related HEV serotypes, but not to the phylogenetically distant herpes simplex virus, which was confirmed by Western blot analysis. The FRET biosensor was then utilized to develop a format for the determination of antiviral susceptibility, as the reduced FRET appeared to reflect viral replication. Evaluations of the FRET biosensor system with representative HEV serotypes demonstrated that their susceptibilities to a 3C(pro) inhibitor, rupintrivir, were all accurately determined. In summary, this novel FRET-based system is a means for rapid detection, quantification, and drug susceptibility testing for HEVs, with potential for the development of a high-throughput screening assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Tian Tsai
- Department of Biotechnology and Laboratory Science in Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taiwan, Republic of China
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24
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Fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based assay for characterization of hepatitis C virus NS3-4A protease activity in live cells. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 53:728-34. [PMID: 19064890 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01029-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The NS3/4A protease from hepatitis C virus (HCV) plays a key role in viral replication. We report a system for monitoring the activity of this enzyme in single living mammalian cells. We constructed a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) probe that consists of an enhanced cyan fluorescent protein-citrine fusion, with a cleavage site for HCV NS3/4A protease embedded within the linker between them. Expression of the biosensor in mammalian cells resulted in a FRET signal, and cotransfection with the NS3/4A expression vector produced a significant reduction in FRET, indicating that the cleavage site was processed. Western blot and spectrofluorimetry analysis confirmed the physical cleavage of the fusion probe by the NS3/4A protease. As the level of FRET decay was a function of the protease activity, the system allowed testing of NS3/4A protease variants with different catalytic efficiencies. This FRET probe could be adapted for high-throughput screening of new HCV NS3/4 protease inhibitors.
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25
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Goulding AM, Rahimi Y, Shrestha S, Deo SK. Dual Function Labeling of Biomolecules Based on DsRed-Monomer. Bioconjug Chem 2008; 19:2113-9. [DOI: 10.1021/bc800147k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. M. Goulding
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - Y. Rahimi
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - S. Shrestha
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
| | - S. K. Deo
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
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26
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Aoki T, Tsuchida S, Yahara T, Hamaue N. Novel assays for proteases using green fluorescent protein-tagged substrate immobilized on a membrane disk. Anal Biochem 2008; 378:132-7. [PMID: 18455491 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2008.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2008] [Revised: 04/07/2008] [Accepted: 04/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Green fluorescent protein (GFP) is very stable for various proteases. Using this property, three protease assay methods designated the disk separation assay for remaining GFP (DSAR), the disk separation assay for liberated GFP (DSAL), and the homogeneous assay for fluorescence concentrated on membrane (HAFCOM) were developed. These methods employ a nylon membrane designated "Cleave-Checker" on which GFP-SpA(B) (domain B in staphylococcal protein A) is immobilized. The SpA(B) region was used as a substrate for the protease, and the isolation of GFP from the membrane generated by the digestion of the SpA(B) region was detected. In DSAR, it was possible to detect solution of at least 25 ng/ml trypsin or proteinase K by visual observation. The most important feature of DSAR is that the detection of the protease is possible only under UV light. In contrast, DSAL is suitable for a highly sensitive assay. The assay ranges of DSAL were 1.6 to 100 ng/ml in trypsin and 1.6 to 400 ng/ml in proteinase K. HAFCOM does not require bound/free (B/F) separation; thus, the procedure is simpler than that with DSAL and the reproducibility is high. The assay ranges of HAFCOM were 25 to 400 ng/ml in trypsin and 12.5 to 200 ng/ml in proteinase K. The Cleave-Checker used for these methods was stable in a dry state, and long-term preservation for at least several months was possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Aoki
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido 061-0293, Japan.
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27
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Lee JD, Chang YF, Kao FJ, Kao LS, Lin CC, Lu AC, Shyu BC, Chiou SH, Yang DM. Detection of the interaction between SNAP25 and rabphilin in neuroendocrine PC12 cells using the FLIM/FRET technique. Microsc Res Tech 2008; 71:26-34. [PMID: 17886343 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.20521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Exocytosis has been proposed to contain four sequential steps, namely docking, priming, fusion, and recycling, and to be regulated by various proteins-protein interactions. Synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP25) has recently been found to bind rabphilin, the Rab3A specific binding protein, in vitro. However, it is still unclear whether SNAP25 and rabphilin interact during exocytosis within cells in vivo. This problem was addressed by the integration of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) with high sensitivity fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) to observe this protein-protein interaction. Enhanced green fluorescence protein-labeled SNAP25 (donor) and red fluorescence protein-labeled rabphilin (acceptor) were expressed in neuroendocrine PC12 cells as a FRET pair and ATP stimulation was carried out for various durations. With 10 s stimulation, a 0.17-ns left shift of the lifetime peak was found when compared with donor only. Analysis of the lifetime image further suggested that the lifetime recovered to a similar level as the donor only in a time dependent manner. Four-dimensional (4D) images by FLIM provided useful information indicating that the interaction of SNAP25 and rabphilin occurred particularly within optical sections near cell membrane. Together the results suggest that SNAP25 bound rabphilin loosely at docking step before exocytosis and the binding became tighter at the very start of exocytosis. Finally, these two proteins dissociated after stimulation. To our knowledge, this is the first report to demonstrate the interaction of SNAP25 and rabphilin in situ using the FLIM-FRET technique within neuroendocrine cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiung-De Lee
- Institute of Biophotonics, School of Medical Technology and Engineering, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
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28
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Räty JK, Liimatainen T, Unelma Kaikkonen M, Gröhn O, Airenne KJ, Jumani Airenne K, Ylä-Herttuala S. Non-invasive Imaging in Gene Therapy. Mol Ther 2007; 15:1579-86. [PMID: 17579578 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mt.6300233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Several methods are available for non-invasive imaging of gene delivery and transgene expression, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), single photon emission tomography (SPECT)/positron emission tomography (PET), and fluorescence and bioluminescence imaging. However, these imaging modalities differ greatly in terms of their sensitivity, cost, and ability to measure the signal. Whereas MRI can produce a resolution of approximately 50 mum, optical imaging achieves only 3-5 mm but outperforms MRI in terms of the cost of the imaging device. Similarly, SPECT and PET give a resolution of only 1-2 mm but provide for relatively easy quantitation of the signal and need only nanograms of probe, compared with the microgram or milligram levels required for MRI and optical imaging. To develop safer and more efficient gene delivery vectors, it is essential to perform rigorous in vivo experiments, to image particle biodistribution and transduction patterns, and to quantify the transgene expression profile. Differences between modalities have a significant effect on the resultant imaging resolution for gene therapy. This review describes the methodologies in use and highlights recent key approaches using the latest imaging modalities in gene therapy. Future trends in gene therapy imaging are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jani Kristian Räty
- Department of Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine, A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Kuopio, Kuopio, Finland
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