Developmentally spliced PKCbetaII provides a possible link between mTORC2 and Akt kinase to regulate 3T3-L1 adipocyte insulin-stimulated glucose transport

Lysozyme Gene Expression in 3T3-L1 Cells Sustains Expression of Adipogenic Genes and Adipocyte Differentiation

Substantial levels of lysozyme in adipose tissue in association to obesity have been recently demonstrated in mice and humans. In addition, experiments in mice suggest that lysozyme might impact on adipose tissue adipogenesis. To further investigate the relationship between lysozyme and adipogenesis, in the present study, we aimed to study lysozyme (Lyz2) during 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation and its possible role in adipogenesis. Time course experiment during 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation indicated that Lyz2 gene expression decreased at day 4, which was caused by isobutylmethylxanthine administration, and recovered at the end of the process (day 8). Importantly, the impact of isobutylmethylxanthine-induced downregulation of Lyz2 gene expression on adipogenesis was not comparable to that observed in the full cocktail, questioning whether the reduction in lysozyme at early stage of adipocyte differentiation is relevant to this process. In fact, the depletion in Lyz2 expression had a negative impact on adipogenesis, and rosiglitazone administration failed to compensate for the anti-adipogenic effect observed in Lyz2 gene knockdown cells. Otherwise, when Lyz2 gene knockdown cells were co-cultured with control cells, these cells had higher expression of adipogenic genes than those co-cultured with themselves at the end of adipocyte differentiation. In conclusion, this study suggests that lysozyme expression in 3T3-L1 cells sustains expression of adipogenic genes and adipocyte differentiation.

Regulatory roles and mechanisms of alternative RNA splicing in adipogenesis and human metabolic health

Alternative splicing (AS) regulates gene expression patterns at the post-transcriptional level and generates a striking expansion of coding capacities of genomes and cellular protein diversity. RNA splicing could undergo modulation and close interaction with genetic and epigenetic machinery. Notably, during the adipogenesis processes of white, brown and beige adipocytes, AS tightly interplays with the differentiation gene program networks. Here, we integrate the available findings on specific splicing events and distinct functions of different splicing regulators as examples to highlight the directive biological contribution of AS mechanism in adipogenesis and adipocyte biology. Furthermore, accumulating evidence has suggested that mutations and/or altered expression in splicing regulators and aberrant splicing alterations in the obesity-associated genes are often linked to humans’ diet-induced obesity and metabolic dysregulation phenotypes. Therefore, significant attempts have been finally made to overview novel detailed discussion on the prospects of splicing machinery with obesity and metabolic disorders to supply featured potential management mechanisms in clinical applicability for obesity treatment strategies.

Protein kinase C-β-dependent changes in the glucose metabolism of bone marrow stromal cells of chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Survival of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells critically depends on the support of an adapted and therefore appropriate tumor microenvironment. Increasing evidence suggests that B-cell receptor-associated kinases such as protein kinase C-β (PKCβ) or Lyn kinase are essential for the formation of a microenvironment supporting leukemic growth. Here, we describe the impact of PKCβ on the glucose metabolism in bone marrow stromal cells (BMSC) upon CLL contact. BMSC get activated by CLL contact expressing stromal PKCβ that diminishes mitochondrial stress and apoptosis in CLL cells by stimulating glucose uptake. In BMSC, the upregulation of PKCβ results in increased mitochondrial depolarization and leads to a metabolic switch toward oxidative phosphorylation. In addition, PKCβ-deficient BMSC regulates the expression of Hnf1 promoting stromal insulin signaling after CLL contact. Our data suggest that targeting PKCβ and the glucose metabolism of the leukemic niche could be a potential therapeutic strategy to overcome stroma-mediated drug resistance.

Hepatocyte-specific PKCβ deficiency protects against high-fat diet-induced nonalcoholic hepatic steatosis

OBJECTIVE

Nonalcoholic hepatic steatosis, also known as fatty liver, is a uniform response of the liver to hyperlipidic-hypercaloric diet intake. However, the post-ingestive signals and mechanistic processes driving hepatic steatosis are not well understood. Emerging data demonstrate that protein kinase C beta (PKCβ), a lipid-sensitive kinase, plays a critical role in energy metabolism and adaptation to environmental and nutritional stimuli. Despite its powerful effect on glucose and lipid metabolism, knowledge of the physiological roles of hepatic PKCβ in energy homeostasis is limited.

METHODS

The floxed-PKCβ and hepatocyte-specific PKCβ-deficient mouse models were generated to study the in vivo role of hepatocyte PKCβ on diet-induced hepatic steatosis, lipid metabolism, and mitochondrial function.

RESULTS

We report that hepatocyte-specific PKCβ deficiency protects mice from development of hepatic steatosis induced by high-fat diet, without affecting body weight gain. This protection is associated with attenuation of SREBP-1c transactivation and improved hepatic mitochondrial respiratory chain. Lipidomic analysis identified significant increases in the critical mitochondrial inner membrane lipid, cardiolipin, in PKCβ-deficient livers compared to control. Moreover, hepatocyte PKCβ deficiency had no significant effect on either hepatic or whole-body insulin sensitivity supporting dissociation between hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance.

CONCLUSIONS

The above data indicate that hepatocyte PKCβ is a key focus of dietary lipid perception and is essential for efficient storage of dietary lipids in liver largely through coordinating energy utilization and lipogenesis during post-prandial period. These results highlight the importance of hepatic PKCβ as a drug target for obesity-associated nonalcoholic hepatic steatosis.

Identification of Sortilin Alternatively Spliced Variants in Mouse 3T3L1 Adipocytes

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder defined by systemic insulin resistance. Insulin resistance in adipocytes, an important regulator of glucose metabolism, results in impaired glucose uptake. The trafficking protein, sortilin, regulates major glucose transporter 4 (Glut4) movement, thereby promoting glucose uptake in adipocytes. Here, we demonstrate the presence of an alternatively spliced sortilin variant (Sort^17b), whose levels increase with insulin resistance in mouse 3T3L1 adipocytes. Using a splicing minigene, we show that inclusion of alternative exon 17b results in the expression of Sort^17b splice variant. Bioinformatic analysis indicated a novel intrinsic disorder region (IDR) encoded by exon 17b of Sort^17b. Root mean square deviation (RMSD) and root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) measurements using molecular dynamics demonstrated increased flexibility of the protein backbone within the IDR. Using protein–protein docking and co-immunoprecipitation assays, we show robust binding of Glut4 to Sort^17b. Further, results demonstrate that over-expression of Sort^17b correlates with reduced Glut4 translocation and decreased glucose uptake in adipocytes. The study demonstrates that insulin resistance in 3T3L1 adipocytes promotes expression of a novel sortilin splice variant with thus far unknown implications in glucose metabolism. This knowledge may be used to develop therapeutics targeting sortilin variants in the management of type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome.

Stabilization of lncRNA GAS5 by a Small Molecule and Its Implications in Diabetic Adipocytes

Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) are regulatory RNAs >200 nt. We previously showed that lncRNA GAS5 decreases significantly in serum of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients. Hence, we sought to decipher the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of GAS5 in T2DM in adipose tissue. Using CHIP-RIP, we demonstrate that GAS5 binds to promoter of insulin receptor to regulate its expression, and its depletion inhibits glucose uptake and insulin signaling. Toward stabilizing GAS5 levels in T2DM, we incorporated a strategy to limit the degradation of GAS5 by blocking the interaction of GAS5 and UPF1 with a small molecule identified using OBTC screening strategy. NP-C86 binds to GAS5 with high affinity, and increases GAS5 levels and glucose uptake in diabetic patient adipocytes. As a broader impact, NP-C86 may be used as a molecular probe to investigate the intricacies of GAS5 in relevant biological systems as it offers specificity, efficient cellular uptake and is non-cytotoxic.

Egg white hydrolysate shows insulin mimetic and sensitizing effects in 3T3-F442A pre-adipocytes

Insulin resistance and inflammation in adipose tissue is a key mechanism underlying metabolic syndrome, a growing health problem characterized by diabetes, obesity and hypertension. Previous work from our research group has demonstrated the potential of egg white ovotransferrin derived bioactive peptides against hypertension, oxidative stress and inflammation in vitro and in vivo. Egg white hydrolysate (EWH) has also shown anti-hypertensive effects in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Given the interplay among hypertension, inflammation, oxidative stress and metabolic syndrome, the objective of the study was to test the EWH on differentiation, insulin signaling and inflammatory responses in 3T3-F442A pre-adipocytes. Our study suggested that EWH could promote adipocyte differentiation as shown by increased lipid accumulation, increased release of adiponectin and upregulation of peroxisome proliferator associated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and CCAAT/ enhancer binding protein alpha (C/EBP-α). In addition to enhanced insulin effects on the upregulation of protein kinase B/Akt phosphorylation, EWH treatment increased extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation to a level similar to that of insulin, indicating insulin sensitizing and mimetic properties of the EWH. EWH further attenuated cytokine induced inflammatory marker; cyclooxygenase -2 (COX-2) by 48.78%, possibly through the AP-1 pathway by down regulating c-Jun phosphorylation in adipocytes. Given the critical role of adipose in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, EWH may have potential applications in the prevention and management of metabolic syndrome and its complications.

Modulation of the cellular content of metabolites in adipocytes by insulin

Although the insulin-mediated cell signaling pathway has been extensively examined, changes in the cellular content of metabolites currently remain unclear. We herein examined metabolite contents in 3T3-L1 adipocytes treated with insulin using a metabolomic analysis. Fifty-four compounds were detected, and the contents of metabolites from the citric acid cycle increased in response to the insulin treatment for 4 h, which was sensitive to U0126 and LY294002, inhibitors for mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase-1 and phosphoinositide 3-kinase, respectively. The cellular contents of fumaric acid and malic acid were increased more by insulin than those of citric acid and succinic acid. Time-course changes in metabolites from the citric acid cycle exhibited oscillations with a 2-h cycle. A metabolic pathway analysis also indicated that insulin affected the metabolism of alanine, aspartate and glutamate, as well as that of arginine and proline. The contents of free amino acids were slightly decreased by the insulin treatment, while the co-treatment with U0126 and LY294002 abrogated these insulin-mediated decreases. The present study revealed the unexpected accumulation of citric acid cycle metabolites in adipocytes by insulin. Our results indicate the usefulness of metabolomic analyses for obtaining a more comprehensive understanding of the regulation of metabolic pathways in cell-culture systems.

Oxidative stress in adipose tissue as a primary link in pathogenesis of insulin resistance

Obesity is a leading risk factor of diabetes mellitus type 2, impairments of lipid metabolism and cardiovascular diseases. Dysfunctions of the accumulating weight of the visceral fat are primarily linked to pathogenesis of systemic insulin resistance. The review considers modern views about biochemical mechanisms underlying formation of oxidative stress in adipocytes at obesity, as one of key elements of impairments of their metabolism triggering formation of systemic insulin resistance.

Renin-angiotensin system: an old player with novel functions in skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle is a tissue that shows the most plasticity in the body; it can change in response to physiological and pathological stimuli. Among the diseases that affect skeletal muscle are myopathy-associated fibrosis, insulin resistance, and muscle atrophy. A common factor in these pathologies is the participation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). This system can be functionally separated into the classical and nonclassical RAS axis. The main components of the classical RAS pathway are angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), angiotensin II (Ang-II), and Ang-II receptors (AT receptors), whereas the nonclassical axis is composed of ACE2, angiotensin 1-7 [Ang (1-7)], and the Mas receptor. Hyperactivity of the classical axis in skeletal muscle has been associated with insulin resistance, atrophy, and fibrosis. In contrast, current evidence supports the action of the nonclassical RAS as a counter-regulator axis of the classical RAS pathway in skeletal muscle. In this review, we describe the mechanisms involved in the pathological effects of the classical RAS, advances in the use of pharmacological molecules to inhibit this axis, and the beneficial effects of stimulation of the nonclassical RAS pathway on insulin resistance, atrophy, and fibrosis in skeletal muscle.

Emerging role of protein kinase C in energy homeostasis: A brief overview

Protein kinase C-β (PKCβ), a member of the lipid-activated serine/threonine PKC family, has been implicated in a wide range of important cellular processes. Very recently, the novel role of PKCβ in the regulation of triglyceride homeostasis via regulating mitochondrial function has been explored. In this review, I aim to provide an overview of PKCβ regarding regulation by lipids and recently gained knowledge on its role in energy homeostasis. Alterations in adipose PKCβ expression have been shown to be crucial for diet-induced obesity and related metabolic abnormalities. High-fat diet is shown to induce PKCβ expression in white adipose tissue in an isoform- and tissue-specific manner. Genetically manipulated mice devoid of PKCβ are lean with increased oxygen consumption and are resistant to high-fat diet-induced obesity and hepatic steatosis with improved insulin sensitivity. Available data support the model in which PKCβ functions as a “diet-sensitive” metabolic sensor whose induction in adipose tissue by high-fat diet is among the initiating event disrupting mitochondrial homeostasis via intersecting with p66^Shc signaling to amplify adipose dysfunction and have systemic consequences. Alterations in PKCβ expression and/or function may have important implications in health and disease and warrants a detailed investigation into the downstream target genes and the underlying mechanisms involved. Development of drugs that target the PKCβ pathway and identification of miRs specifically controlling PKCβ expression may lead to novel therapeutic options for treating age-related metabolic disease including fatty liver, obesity and type 2 diabetes.

The role of the renin-angiotensin system in the development of insulin resistance in skeletal muscle

The canonical renin-angiotensin system (RAS) involves the initial action of renin to cleave angiotensinogen to angiotensin I (ANG I), which is then converted to ANG II by the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). ANG II plays a critical role in numerous physiological functions, and RAS overactivity underlies many conditions of cardiovascular dysregulation. In addition, ANG II, by acting on both endothelial and myocellular AT1 receptors, can induce insulin resistance by increasing cellular oxidative stress, leading to impaired insulin signaling and insulin-stimulated glucose transport activity. This insulin resistance associated with RAS overactivity, when coupled with progressive ß-cell dysfunction, eventually leads to the development of type 2 diabetes. Interventions that target RAS overactivity, including ACE inhibitors, ANG II receptor blockers, and, most recently, renin inhibitors, are effective both in reducing hypertension and in improving whole-body and skeletal muscle insulin action, due at least in part to enhanced Akt-dependent insulin signaling and insulin-dependent glucose transport activity. ANG-(1-7), which is produced from ANG II by the action of ACE2 and acts via Mas receptors, can counterbalance the deleterious actions of the ACE/ANG II/AT1 receptor axis on the insulin-dependent glucose transport system in skeletal muscle. This beneficial effect of the ACE2/ANG-(1-7)/Mas receptor axis appears to depend on the activation of Akt. Collectively, these findings underscore the importance of RAS overactivity in the multifactorial etiology of insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, and provide support for interventions that target the RAS to ameliorate both cardiovascular dysfunctions and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle tissue.

The tail wagging the dog--regulation of lipid metabolism by protein kinase C

Upon their discovery almost 40 years ago, isoforms of the lipid-activated protein kinase C (PKC) family were initially regarded only as downstream effectors of the second messengers calcium and diacylglycerol, undergoing activation upon phospholipid hydrolysis in response to acute stimuli. Subsequently, several isoforms were found to be associated with the inhibitory effects of lipid over-supply on glucose homeostasis, especially the negative cross-talk with insulin signal transduction, observed upon accumulation of diacylglycerol in insulin target tissues. The PKC family has therefore attracted much attention in diabetes and obesity research, because intracellular lipid accumulation is strongly correlated with defective insulin action and the development of type 2 diabetes. Causal roles for various isoforms in the generation of insulin resistance have more recently been confirmed using PKC-deficient mice. However, during characterization of these animals, it became increasingly evident that the enzymes play key roles in the modulation of lipid metabolism itself, and may control the supply of lipids between tissues such as adipose and liver. Molecular studies have also demonstrated roles for PKC isoforms in several aspects of lipid metabolism, such as adipocyte differentiation and hepatic lipogenesis. While the precise mechanisms involved, especially the identities of protein substrates, are still unclear, the emerging picture suggests that the currently held view of the contribution of PKC isoforms to metabolism is an over-simplification. Although PKCs may inhibit insulin signal transduction, these enzymes are not merely downstream effectors of lipid accumulation, but in fact control the fate of fatty acids, thus the tail wags the dog.

Clk/STY (cdc2-like kinase 1) and Akt regulate alternative splicing and adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes

The development of adipocytes from their progenitor cells requires the action of growth factors signaling to transcription factors to induce the expression of adipogenic proteins leading to the accumulation of lipid droplets, induction of glucose transport, and secretion of adipokines signaling metabolic events throughout the body. Murine 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes sequentially express all the proteins necessary to become mature adipocytes throughout an 8–10 day process initiated by a cocktail of hormones. We examined the role of Clk/STY or Clk1, a cdc2-like kinase, in adipogenesis since it is known to be regulated by Akt, a pivotal kinase in development. Inhibition of Clk1 by a specific inhibitor, TG003, blocked alternative splicing of PKCβII and expression of PPARγ1 and PPARγ2. SiRNA depletion of Clk1 resulted in early expression of PKCβII and sustained PKCβI expression. Since Clk1 is a preferred Akt substrate, required for phosphorylation of splicing factors, mutation of Clk1 Akt phosphorylation sites was undertaken. Akt sites on Clk1 are in the serine/arginine-rich domain and not the kinase domain. Mutation of single and multiple sites resulted in dysregulation of PKCβII, PKCβI, and PPARγ1&2 expression. Additionally, adipogenesis was blocked as assessed by Oil Red O staining, adiponectin, and Glut1 and 4 expression. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that Clk1 triple mutant cDNA, transfected into pre-adipocytes, resulted in excluding SRp40 (SFSR6) from co-localizing to the nucleus with PFS, a perispeckle specific protein. This study demonstrates the role of Akt and Clk1 kinases in the early differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells to adipocytes.

Effects of H2O2 on insulin signaling the glucose transport system in mammalian skeletal muscle

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is an important regulator of cellular events leading to glucose transport activation in mammalian skeletal muscle. In the absence of insulin, H2O2 in the low micromolar range engages the canonical IRS-1/PI3K/Akt-dependent insulin signaling pathway, as well as other signaling elements (AMPK and p38 MAPK), to increase basal glucose transport activity. In contrast, in the presence of insulin, H2O2 antagonizes insulin signaling by recruitment of various deleterious serine/threonine kinases, producing a state of insulin resistance. Here, we describe the H2O2 enzymatic-generating system, utilizing glucose oxidase, that has been used to investigate the impact of H2O2 on cellular signaling mechanisms related to glucose transport activity in isolated rat skeletal muscle preparations, such as the soleus. By varying the glucose oxidase concentration in the medium, target ranges of steady-state H2O2 concentrations (30-90 μM) can be attained for up to 6h, with subsequent assessment of cellular signaling and glucose transport activity.

Rab11 is phosphorylated by classical and novel protein kinase C isoenzymes upon sustained phorbol ester activation

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Rab11 is a small GTPase that controls diverse intracellular trafficking pathways. However, the molecular machinery that regulates the participation of Rab11 in those different transport events is poorly understood. In resting cells, Rab11 localizes at the endocytic recycling compartment (ERC), whereas the different protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms display a cytosolic distribution.

RESULTS

Sustained phorbol ester stimulation induces the translocation of the classical PKCα and PKCβII isoenzymes to the ERC enriched in Rab11, and results in transferrin recycling inhibition. In contrast, novel PKCε and atypical PKCζ isoenzymes neither redistribute to the perinucleus nor modify transferrin recycling transport after phorbol ester stimulation. Although several Rabs have been shown to be phosphorylated, there is to date no evidence indicating Rab11 as a kinase substrate. In this report, we show that Rab11 appears phosphorylated in vivo in phorbol ester-stimulated cells. A bioinformatic analysis of Rab11 allowed us to identify several high-probability Ser/Thr kinase phosphorylation sites. Our results demonstrate that classical PKC (PKCα and PKCβII but not PKCβI) directly phosphorylate Rab11 in vitro. In addition, novel PKCε and PKCη but not PKCδ isoenzymes also phosphorylate Rab11. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed that Ser 177 is the Rab11 residue to be phosphorylated in vitro by either PKCβII or PKCε. In agreement, the phosphomimetic mutant, Rab11 S177D, retains transferrin at the ERC in the absence of phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate stimulus.

CONCLUSIONS

This report shows for the first time that Rab11 is differentially phosphorylated by distinct PKC isoenzymes and that this post-translational modification might be a regulatory mechanism of intracellular trafficking.

Real-Time Translocation and Function of PKCβII Isoform in Response to Nociceptive Signaling via the TRPV1 Pain Receptor

Serine/threonine protein kinase C βII isoform (PKCβII) or the pain receptor transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) have been separately implicated in mediating heat hyperalgesia during inflammation or diabetic neuropathy. However, detailed information on the role of PKC βII in nociceptive signaling mediated by TRPV1 is lacking. This study presents evidence for activation and translocation of the PKC βII isoform as a signaling event in nociception mediated by activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin. We show that capsaicin induces translocation of cytosolic PKCβII isoform fused with enhanced green fluorescence protein (PKCβII-EGFP) in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. We also show capsaicin-induced translocation in Chinese Hamster Ovarian (CHO) cells co-transfected with TRPV1 and PKCβII-EGFP, but not in CHO cells expressing PKCβII-EGFP alone. By contrast, the PKC activator phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) induced translocation of PKCβII-EGFP which was sustained and independent of calcium or TRPV1. In addition PMA-induced sensitization of TRPV1 to capsaicin response in DRG neurons was attenuated by PKCβII blocker CGP 53353. Capsaicin response via TRPV1 in the DRG neurons was confirmed by TRPV1 antagonist AMG 9810. These results suggested a novel and potential signaling link between PKCβII and TRPV1. These cell culture models provide a platform for investigating mechanisms of painful neuropathies mediated by nociceptors expressing the pain sensing gene TRPV1, and its regulation by the PKC isoform PKCβII.

Mechanical regulation of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) in mesenchymal stem cells is dependent on Akt protein serine 473 phosphorylation via mTORC2 protein

Mechanical signals can inactivate glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), resulting in stabilization of β-catenin. This signaling cascade is necessary for the inhibition of adipogenesis in mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) that is produced by a daily strain regimen. We investigated whether Akt is the mechanically activated kinase responsible for phosphorylation and inactivation of GSK3β in MSC. Mechanical strain (2% magnitude, 0.17 Hz) induced phosphorylation of Akt at Ser-473 and Thr-308 in parallel with phosphorylation of GSK3β at Ser-9. Inhibiting Akt (Akt1/2 kinase inhibitor treatment or Akt knockdown) prevented strain-induced phosphorylation of GSK3β at Ser-9. Inhibition of PI3K prevented Thr-308 phosphorylation, but strain-induced Ser-473 phosphorylation was measurable and induced phosphorylation of GSK3β, suggesting that Ser-473 phosphorylation is sufficient for the downstream mechanoresponse. As Rictor/mTORC2 (mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2) is known to transduce phosphorylation of Akt at Ser-473 by insulin, we investigated whether it contributes to strain-induced Ser-473 phosphorylation. Phosphorylation of Ser-473 by both mechanical and insulin treatment in MSC was prevented by the mTOR inhibitor KU0063794. When mTORC2 was blocked, mechanical GSK3β inactivation was prevented, whereas insulin inhibition of GSK3β was still measured in the absence of Ser-473 phosphorylation, presumably through phosphorylation of Akt at Thr-308. In sum, mechanical input initiates a signaling cascade that is uniquely dependent on mTORC2 activation and phosphorylation of Akt at Ser-473, an effect sufficient to cause inactivation of GSK3β. Thus, mechanical regulation of GSK3β downstream of Akt is dependent on phosphorylation of Akt at Ser-473 in a manner distinct from that of growth factors. As such, Akt reveals itself to be a pleiotropic signaling molecule whose downstream targets are differentially regulated depending upon the nature of the activating input.

Oxidative stress and the etiology of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes

The condition of oxidative stress arises when oxidant production exceeds antioxidant activity in cells and plasma. The overabundance of oxidants is mechanistically connected to the multifactorial etiology of insulin resistance, primarily in skeletal muscle tissue, and the subsequent development of type 2 diabetes. Two important mechanisms for this oxidant excess are (1) the mitochondrial overproduction of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide ion under conditions of energy surplus and (2) the enhanced activation of cellular NADPH oxidase via angiotensin II receptors. Several recent studies are reviewed that support the concept that direct exposure of mammalian skeletal muscle to an oxidant stress (including hydrogen peroxide) results in stimulation of the serine kinase p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), and that the engagement of this stress-activated p38 MAPK signaling is mechanistically associated with diminished insulin-dependent stimulation of insulin signaling elements and glucose transport activity. The beneficial interactions between the antioxidant α-lipoic acid and the advanced glycation end-product inhibitor pyridoxamine that ameliorate oxidant stress-associated defects in whole-body and skeletal-muscle insulin action in the obese Zucker rat, a model of prediabetes, are also addressed. Overall, this review highlights the importance of oxidative stress in the development of insulin resistance in mammalian skeletal muscle tissue, at least in part via a p38-MAPK-dependent mechanism, and indicates that interventions that reduce this oxidative stress and oxidative damage can improve insulin action in insulin-resistant animal models. Strategies to prevent and ameliorate oxidative stress remain important in the overall treatment of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes.