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Watanabe S, Kurotani T, Oga T, Noguchi J, Isoda R, Nakagami A, Sakai K, Nakagaki K, Sumida K, Hoshino K, Saito K, Miyawaki I, Sekiguchi M, Wada K, Minamimoto T, Ichinohe N. Functional and molecular characterization of a non-human primate model of autism spectrum disorder shows similarity with the human disease. Nat Commun 2021; 12:5388. [PMID: 34526497 PMCID: PMC8443557 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25487-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a multifactorial disorder with characteristic synaptic and gene expression changes. Early intervention during childhood is thought to benefit prognosis. Here, we examined the changes in cortical synaptogenesis, synaptic function, and gene expression from birth to the juvenile stage in a marmoset model of ASD induced by valproic acid (VPA) treatment. Early postnatally, synaptogenesis was reduced in this model, while juvenile-age VPA-treated marmosets showed increased synaptogenesis, similar to observations in human tissue. During infancy, synaptic plasticity transiently increased and was associated with altered vocalization. Synaptogenesis-related genes were downregulated early postnatally. At three months of age, the differentially expressed genes were associated with circuit remodeling, similar to the expression changes observed in humans. In summary, we provide a functional and molecular characterization of a non-human primate model of ASD, highlighting its similarity to features observed in human ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Watanabe
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
| | - Tohru Kurotani
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
| | - Tomofumi Oga
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
| | - Jun Noguchi
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
| | - Risa Isoda
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
| | - Akiko Nakagami
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan ,grid.411827.90000 0001 2230 656XDepartment of Psychology, Japan Women’s University, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Japan
| | - Kazuhisa Sakai
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
| | - Keiko Nakagaki
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
| | - Kayo Sumida
- grid.459996.e0000 0004 0376 2692Environmental Health Science Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd., Konohana-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kohei Hoshino
- grid.417741.00000 0004 1797 168XPreclinical Research Laboratories, Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma Co., Ltd., Konohana-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Koichi Saito
- grid.459996.e0000 0004 0376 2692Environmental Health Science Laboratory, Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd., Konohana-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Izuru Miyawaki
- grid.417741.00000 0004 1797 168XPreclinical Research Laboratories, Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma Co., Ltd., Konohana-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masayuki Sekiguchi
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Degenerative Neurological Diseases, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
| | - Keiji Wada
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Degenerative Neurological Diseases, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
| | - Takafumi Minamimoto
- grid.482503.80000 0004 5900 003XDepartment of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba, Chiba, Japan
| | - Noritaka Ichinohe
- grid.419280.60000 0004 1763 8916Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo Japan
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Sager REH, Walker AK, Middleton F, Robinson K, Webster MJ, Weickert CS. Trajectory of change in brain complement factors from neonatal to young adult humans. J Neurochem 2020; 157:479-493. [PMID: 33190236 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Immune system components also regulate synapse formation and refinement in neurodevelopment. The complement pathway, associated with cell lysis and phagocytosis, is implicated in synaptic elimination. Aberrant adolescent synaptic pruning may underpin schizophrenia onset; thus, changes in cortical complement activity during human development are of major interest. Complement is genetically linked to schizophrenia via increased C4 copy number variants, but the developmental trajectory of complement expression in the human brain is undetermined. As complement increases during periods of active synaptic engulfment in rodents, we hypothesized that complement expression would increase during postnatal development in humans, particularly during adolescence. Using human postmortem prefrontal cortex, we observed that complement activator (C1QB and C3) transcripts peaked in early neurodevelopment, and were highest in toddlers, declining in teenagers (all ANCOVAs between F = 2.41 -3.325, p = .01-0.05). We found that C4 protein was higher at 1-5 years (H = 16.378, p = .012), whereas C3 protein levels were unchanged with age. The microglial complement receptor subunit CD11b increased in mRNA early in life and peaked in the toddler brain (ANCOVA: pH, F = 4.186, p = .003). Complement inhibitors (CD46 and CD55) increased at school age, but failed to decrease like complement activators (both ANCOVAs, F > 4.4, p < .01). These data suggest the activation of complement in the human prefrontal cortex occurs between 1 and 5 years. We did not find evidence of induction of complement factors during adolescence and instead found increased or sustained levels of complement inhibitor mRNA at maturation. Dysregulation of these typical patterns of complement may predispose the brain to neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism or schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel E H Sager
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Adam K Walker
- Laboratory of Immunopsychiatry, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Monash University, Parkville, Vic, Australia
| | - Frank Middleton
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Kate Robinson
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Cynthia Shannon Weickert
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA.,School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Eltokhi A, Janmaat IE, Genedi M, Haarman BCM, Sommer IEC. Dysregulation of synaptic pruning as a possible link between intestinal microbiota dysbiosis and neuropsychiatric disorders. J Neurosci Res 2020; 98:1335-1369. [PMID: 32239720 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The prenatal and early postnatal stages represent a critical time window for human brain development. Interestingly, this window partly overlaps with the maturation of the intestinal flora (microbiota) that play a critical role in the bidirectional communication between the central and the enteric nervous systems (microbiota-gut-brain axis). The microbial composition has important influences on general health and the development of several organ systems, such as the gastrointestinal tract, the immune system, and also the brain. Clinical studies have shown that microbiota alterations are associated with a wide range of neuropsychiatric disorders including autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder. In this review, we dissect the link between these neuropsychiatric disorders and the intestinal microbiota by focusing on their effect on synaptic pruning, a vital process in the maturation and establishing efficient functioning of the brain. We discuss in detail how synaptic pruning is dysregulated differently in the aforementioned neuropsychiatric disorders and how it can be influenced by dysbiosis and/or changes in the intestinal microbiota composition. We also review that the improvement in the intestinal microbiota composition by a change in diet, probiotics, prebiotics, or fecal microbiota transplantation may play a role in improving neuropsychiatric functioning, which can be at least partly explained via the optimization of synaptic pruning and neuronal connections. Altogether, the demonstration of the microbiota's influence on brain function via microglial-induced synaptic pruning addresses the possibility that the manipulation of microbiota-immune crosstalk represents a promising strategy for treating neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Eltokhi
- Department of Neurology and Epileptology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard Karls University Tubingen, Tubingen, Germany
| | - Isabel E Janmaat
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cells & Systems, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Mohamed Genedi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cells & Systems, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bartholomeus C M Haarman
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Iris E C Sommer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cells & Systems, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
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De Luca SN, Miller AA, Sominsky L, Spencer SJ. Microglial regulation of satiety and cognition. J Neuroendocrinol 2020; 32:e12838. [PMID: 32097992 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Microglia have been known for decades as key immune cells that shape the central nervous system (CNS) during development and respond to brain pathogens and injury in adult life. Recent findings now suggest that these cells also play a highly complex role in several other functions of the CNS. In this review, we provide a brief overview of the established microglial functions in development and disease. We also discuss emerging research suggesting that microglia are important for both cognitive function and the regulation of food intake. With respect to cognitive function, current data suggest microglia are not indispensable for neurogenesis, synaptogenesis or cognition in the healthy young adult, although they crucially modulate and support these functions. In doing so, they are likely important in supporting the balance between apoptosis and survival of newborn neurones and in orchestrating appropriate synaptic remodelling in response to a learning stimulus. We also explore the possibility of a role for microglia in feeding and satiety. Microglia have been implicated in both appetite suppression with sickness and obesity and in promoting feeding under some conditions and we discuss these findings here, highlighting the contribution of these cells to healthy brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone N De Luca
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Alyson A Miller
- Institute of Cardiovascular & Medical Sciences, British Heart Foundation Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Sarah J Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale Biophotonics, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Abnormal axon guidance signals and reduced interhemispheric connection via anterior commissure in neonates of marmoset ASD model. Neuroimage 2019; 195:243-251. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
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6
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The role of neurotrophins in psychopathology and cardiovascular diseases: psychosomatic connections. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2019; 126:265-278. [PMID: 30767081 PMCID: PMC6449302 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-019-01973-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cardiovascular (CV) diseases and mood disorders are common public health problems worldwide. Their connections are widely studied, and the role of neurotrophins (NTs) is already supposed in both conditions. However, data in the literature of clinical aspects are sometimes controversial and no reviews are available describing possible associations between CV risk and mood disorders based on NTs. The mostly studied NT is brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Decreased level of BDNF is observed in depression and its connection to hypertension has also been demonstrated with affecting the arterial baroreceptors, renin–angiotensin system and endothelial nitric oxide synthase. BDNF was also found to be the predictor of CV outcome in different patient populations. Other types of human NT-s, such as nerve growth factor, neurotrophin 3 and neurotrophin 4 also seem to have both psychopathological and CV connections. Our aim was to overview the present knowledge in this area, demonstrating a new aspect of the associations between mood disorders and CV diseases through the mediation of NTs. These findings might enlighten new psychosomatic connections and suggest new therapeutic targets that are beneficial both in respect of mood disorders and CV pathology.
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Bisht K, Sharma K, Tremblay MÈ. Chronic stress as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: Roles of microglia-mediated synaptic remodeling, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Neurobiol Stress 2018; 9:9-21. [PMID: 29992181 PMCID: PMC6035903 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the predominant immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS) that exert key physiological roles required for maintaining CNS homeostasis, notably in response to chronic stress, as well as mediating synaptic plasticity, learning and memory. The repeated exposure to stress confers a higher risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases including sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD). While microglia have been causally linked to amyloid beta (Aβ) accumulation, tau pathology, neurodegeneration, and synaptic loss in AD, they were also attributed beneficial roles, notably in the phagocytic elimination of Aβ. In this review, we discuss the interactions between chronic stress and AD pathology, overview the roles played by microglia in AD, especially focusing on chronic stress as an environmental risk factor modulating their function, and present recently-described microglial phenotypes associated with neuroprotection in AD. These microglial phenotypes observed under both chronic stress and AD pathology may provide novel opportunities for the development of better-targeted therapeutic interventions.
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Key Words
- ABCA7, ATP-binding cassette transporter A7
- AD, Alzheimer's disease
- APOE, Apolipoprotein E
- APP, amyloid precursor protein
- Alzheimer's disease
- Aβ, Amyloid beta
- BDNF, brain derived neurotrophic factor
- CD11b, cluster of differentiation molecule 11B
- CD33, cluster of differentiation 33
- CNS, central nervous system
- CR, complement receptor
- CRF, corticotropin releasing factor
- DAM, disease associated microglia
- DAP12, DNAX-activation protein 12
- Dark microglia
- FAD, Familial Alzheimer's disease
- FCRLS, Fc receptor-like S scavenger receptor
- GR, glucocorticoid receptor
- HPA axis, hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical axis
- IBA1, ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1
- IL, interleukin
- LTP, long-term potentiation
- MGnD, microglia with a neurodegenerative phenotype
- MR, mineralocorticoid receptor
- Microglia
- Microglial phenotypes
- NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
- NFT, neurofibrillary tangles
- Neurodegeneration
- Neuroinflammation
- PS, presenilin
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- Stress
- Synaptic remodeling
- TGFβ, transforming growth factor β
- TLR, Toll-like receptors
- TMEM119, transmembrane protein 119
- TNFα, tumor necrosis factor-α
- TREM2, triggering receptor expressed in myeloid cells 2
- TYROBP, TYRO protein tyrosine kinase binding protein
- mPFC, medial prefrontal cortex
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanchan Bisht
- Axe Neurosciences, CRCHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Kaushik Sharma
- Axe Neurosciences, CRCHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- Axe Neurosciences, CRCHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
- Département de médecine moléculaire, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
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Fan WJ, Yan MC, Wang L, Sun YZ, Deng JB, Deng JX. Synaptic aging disrupts synaptic morphology and function in cerebellar Purkinje cells. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:1019-1025. [PMID: 29926829 PMCID: PMC6022458 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.233445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Synapses are key structures in neural networks, and are involved in learning and memory in the central nervous system. Investigating synaptogenesis and synaptic aging is important in understanding neural development and neural degeneration in diseases such as Alzheimer disease and Parkinson's disease. Our previous study found that synaptogenesis and synaptic maturation were harmonized with brain development and maturation. However, synaptic damage and loss in the aging cerebellum are not well understood. This study was designed to investigate the occurrence of synaptic aging in the cerebellum by observing the ultrastructural changes of dendritic spines and synapses in cerebellar Purkinje cells of aging mice. Immunocytochemistry, DiI diolistic assays, and transmission electron microscopy were used to visualize the morphological characteristics of synaptic buttons, dendritic spines and synapses of Purkinje cells in mice at various ages. With synaptic aging in the cerebellum, dendritic spines and synaptic buttons were lost, and the synaptic ultrastructure was altered, including a reduction in the number of synaptic vesicles and mitochondria in presynaptic termini and smaller thin specialized zones in pre- and post-synaptic membranes. These findings confirm that synaptic morphology and function is disrupted in aging synapses, which may be an important pathological cause of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Juan Fan
- Institute of Neurobiology, School of Life Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan Province, China
| | - Ming-Chao Yan
- Institute of Neurobiology, School of Life Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan Province, China
| | - Lai Wang
- Institute of Neurobiology, School of Life Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan Province, China
| | - Yi-Zheng Sun
- Institute of Neurobiology, School of Life Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan Province, China
| | - Jin-Bo Deng
- Institute of Neurobiology, School of Life Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan Province, China
| | - Jie-Xin Deng
- Institute of Neurobiology, School of Life Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan Province, China
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Solek CM, Farooqi N, Verly M, Lim TK, Ruthazer ES. Maternal immune activation in neurodevelopmental disorders. Dev Dyn 2017; 247:588-619. [PMID: 29226543 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Converging lines of evidence from basic science and clinical studies suggest a relationship between maternal immune activation (MIA) and neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. The mechanisms through which MIA increases the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders have become a subject of intensive research. This review aims to describe how dysregulation of microglial function and immune mechanisms may link MIA and neurodevelopmental pathologies. We also summarize the current evidence in animal models of MIA. Developmental Dynamics 247:588-619, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia M Solek
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nasr Farooqi
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Myriam Verly
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Tony K Lim
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Edward S Ruthazer
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Errant gardeners: glial-cell-dependent synaptic pruning and neurodevelopmental disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 2017; 18:658-670. [PMID: 28931944 DOI: 10.1038/nrn.2017.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The final stage of brain development is associated with the generation and maturation of neuronal synapses. However, the same period is also associated with a peak in synapse elimination - a process known as synaptic pruning - that has been proposed to be crucial for the maturation of remaining synaptic connections. Recent studies have pointed to a key role for glial cells in synaptic pruning in various parts of the nervous system and have identified a set of critical signalling pathways between glia and neurons. At the same time, brain imaging and post-mortem anatomical studies suggest that insufficient or excessive synaptic pruning may underlie several neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism, schizophrenia and epilepsy. Here, we review current data on the cellular, physiological and molecular mechanisms of glial-cell-dependent synaptic pruning and outline their potential contribution to neurodevelopmental disorders.
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New Targets for Schizophrenia Treatment beyond the Dopamine Hypothesis. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18081689. [PMID: 28771182 PMCID: PMC5578079 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18081689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 07/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia has been primarily associated with dopamine dysfunction, and treatments have been developed that target the dopamine pathway in the central nervous system. However, accumulating evidence has shown that the core pathophysiology of schizophrenia might involve dysfunction in dopaminergic, glutamatergic, serotonergic, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) signaling, which may lead to aberrant functioning of interneurons that manifest as cognitive, behavioral, and social dysfunction through altered functioning of a broad range of macro- and microcircuits. The interactions between neurotransmitters can be modeled as nodes and edges by using graph theory, and oxidative balance, immune, and glutamatergic systems may represent multiple nodes interlocking at a central hub; imbalance within any of these nodes might affect the entire system. Therefore, this review attempts to address novel treatment targets beyond the dopamine hypothesis, including glutamate, serotonin, acetylcholine, GABA, and inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, we outline that these treatment targets can be possibly integrated with novel treatment strategies aimed at different symptoms or phases of the illness. We anticipate that reversing anomalous activity in these novel treatment targets or combinations between these strategies might be beneficial in the treatment of schizophrenia.
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Keshavan MS, Lawler AN, Nasrallah HA, Tandon R. New drug developments in psychosis: Challenges, opportunities and strategies. Prog Neurobiol 2017; 152:3-20. [PMID: 27519538 PMCID: PMC5362348 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
All currently approved drugs for schizophrenia work mainly by dopaminergic antagonism. While they are efficacious for psychotic symptoms, their efficacy is limited for negative symptoms and cognitive deficits which underlie the substantive disability in this illness. Recent insights into the biological basis of schizophrenia, especially in relation to non-dopaminergic mechanisms, have raised the efforts to find novel and effective drug targets, though with relatively little success thus far. Potential impediments to novel drug discovery include the continued use of symptom based disease definitions which leads to etiological and pathophysiological heterogeneity, lack of valid preclinical models for drug testing, and design limitations in clinical trials. These roadblocks can be addressed by (i) characterizing trans-diagnostic, translational pathophysiological dimensions as potential treatment targets, (ii) efficiency, accountability and, transparency in approaches to the clinical trials process, and (iii) leveraging recent advances in genetics and in vitro phenotypes. Accomplishing these goals is urgent given the significant unmet needs in the pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia. As this happens, it is imperative that clinicians employ optimal dosing, measurement-based care, and other best practices in utilizing existing treatments to optimize outcomes for their patients today.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matcheri S Keshavan
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Massachusetts Mental Health Center, Harvard Medical School, United States.
| | - Ashley N Lawler
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Massachusetts Mental Health Center, Harvard Medical School, United States
| | - Henry A Nasrallah
- Department of Neurology & Psychiatry, St Louis University, United States
| | - Rajiv Tandon
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainsville, Florida. and the North FL/South Georgia Veterans' Administration Medical Center, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States; The North Florida/South Georgia Veterans' Administration Medical Center, Gainesville, FL, 32610, United States
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13
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Oga T, Elston GN, Fujita I. Postnatal Dendritic Growth and Spinogenesis of Layer-V Pyramidal Cells Differ between Visual, Inferotemporal, and Prefrontal Cortex of the Macaque Monkey. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:118. [PMID: 28348514 PMCID: PMC5347257 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyramidal cells in the primate cerebral cortex, particularly those in layer III, exhibit regional variation in both the time course and magnitude of postnatal growth and pruning of dendrites and spines. Less is known about the development of pyramidal cell dendrites and spines in other cortical layers. Here we studied dendritic morphology of layer-V pyramidal cells in primary visual cortex (V1, sensory), cytoarchitectonic area TE in the inferotemporal cortex (sensory association), and granular prefrontal cortex (Walker's area 12, executive) of macaque monkeys at the ages of 2 days, 3 weeks, 3.5 months, and 4.5 years. We found that changes in the basal dendritic field area of pyramidal cells were different across the three areas. In V1, field size became smaller over time (largest at 2 days, half that size at 4.5 years), in TE it did not change, and in area 12 it became larger over time (smallest at 2 days, 1.5 times greater at 4.5 years). In V1 and TE, the total number of branch points in the basal dendritic trees was similar between 2 days and 4.5 years, while in area 12 the number was greater in the adult monkeys than in the younger ones. Spine density peaked at 3 weeks and declined in all areas by adulthood, with V1 exhibiting a faster decline than area TE or area 12. Estimates of the total number of spines in the dendritic trees revealed that following the onset of visual experience, pyramidal cells in V1 lose more spines than they grow, whereas those in TE and area 12 grow more spines than they lose during the same period. These data provide further evidence that the process of synaptic refinement in cortical pyramidal cells differs not only according to time, but also location within the cortex. Furthermore, given the previous finding that layer-III pyramidal cells in all these areas exhibit the highest density and total number of spines at 3.5 months, the current results indicate that pyramidal cells in layers III and V develop spines at different rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomofumi Oga
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University Suita, Japan
| | - Guy N Elston
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience Sunshine Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Ichiro Fujita
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan; Center for Information and Neural Networks, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology and Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
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Amare AT, Schubert KO, Klingler-Hoffmann M, Cohen-Woods S, Baune BT. The genetic overlap between mood disorders and cardiometabolic diseases: a systematic review of genome wide and candidate gene studies. Transl Psychiatry 2017; 7:e1007. [PMID: 28117839 PMCID: PMC5545727 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2016.261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Meta-analyses of genome-wide association studies (meta-GWASs) and candidate gene studies have identified genetic variants associated with cardiovascular diseases, metabolic diseases and mood disorders. Although previous efforts were successful for individual disease conditions (single disease), limited information exists on shared genetic risk between these disorders. This article presents a detailed review and analysis of cardiometabolic diseases risk (CMD-R) genes that are also associated with mood disorders. First, we reviewed meta-GWASs published until January 2016, for the diseases 'type 2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, hypertension' and/or for the risk factors 'blood pressure, obesity, plasma lipid levels, insulin and glucose related traits'. We then searched the literature for published associations of these CMD-R genes with mood disorders. We considered studies that reported a significant association of at least one of the CMD-R genes and 'depression' or 'depressive disorder' or 'depressive symptoms' or 'bipolar disorder' or 'lithium treatment response in bipolar disorder', or 'serotonin reuptake inhibitors treatment response in major depression'. Our review revealed 24 potential pleiotropic genes that are likely to be shared between mood disorders and CMD-Rs. These genes include MTHFR, CACNA1D, CACNB2, GNAS, ADRB1, NCAN, REST, FTO, POMC, BDNF, CREB, ITIH4, LEP, GSK3B, SLC18A1, TLR4, PPP1R1B, APOE, CRY2, HTR1A, ADRA2A, TCF7L2, MTNR1B and IGF1. A pathway analysis of these genes revealed significant pathways: corticotrophin-releasing hormone signaling, AMPK signaling, cAMP-mediated or G-protein coupled receptor signaling, axonal guidance signaling, serotonin or dopamine receptors signaling, dopamine-DARPP32 feedback in cAMP signaling, circadian rhythm signaling and leptin signaling. Our review provides insights into the shared biological mechanisms of mood disorders and cardiometabolic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- A T Amare
- Discipline of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - K O Schubert
- Discipline of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia,Northern Adelaide Local Health Network, Mental Health Services, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - M Klingler-Hoffmann
- Adelaide Proteomics Centre, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - S Cohen-Woods
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - B T Baune
- Discipline of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia,Discipline of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia. E-mail:
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15
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Unmasking a novel disease gene NEO1 associated with autism spectrum disorders by a hemizygous deletion on chromosome 15 and a functional polymorphism. Behav Brain Res 2016; 300:135-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.10.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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16
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Rincic M, Rados M, Krsnik Z, Gotovac K, Borovecki F, Liehr T, Brecevic L. Complex intrachromosomal rearrangement in 1q leading to 1q32.2 microdeletion: a potential role of SRGAP2 in the gyrification of cerebral cortex. Mol Cytogenet 2016; 9:19. [PMID: 26900403 PMCID: PMC4761178 DOI: 10.1186/s13039-016-0221-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Van der Woude syndrome (MIM: 119300, VWS) is a dominantly inherited and the most common orofacial clefting syndrome; it accounts for ~2 % of all cleft lip and palate cases. Intellectual disability (ID) is characterized by significant limitations, both in intellectual functioning (cognitive deficit) and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social and practical adaptive skills. Karyotyping has been the first standard test for the detection of genetic imbalance in patients with ID for more than 35 years. Advances in genetic diagnosis have laid chromosomal microarrays (CMA) as a new standard and first first-line test for diagnosis of patients with ID, as well as other conditions, such as autism spectrum disorders or multiple congenital anomalies. Case Presentation The present case was initially studied due to unexplained cognitive deficit. Physical examination at the age of 18 years revealed cleft palate, lower lip pits and hypodontia, accompanied with other dysmorphic features and absence of speech. Brain MRI uncovered significantly reduced overall volume of gray matter and cortical gyrification. Banding cytogenetics revealed an indistinct intrachromosomal rearrangement in the long arm of one chromosome 1, and subsequent microarray analyses identified a 5.56 Mb deletion in 1q32.1-1q32.3, encompassing 52 genes; included were the entire IRF6 gene (whose mutations/deletions underlay VWS) and SRGAP2, a gene with an important role in neuronal migration during development of cerebral cortex. Besides, a duplication in 3q26.32 (1.9 Mb in size) comprising TBL1XR1 gene was identified. Multicolor banding for chromosome 1 and molecular cytogenetics applying a battery of locus-specific probes covering 1q32.1 to 1q44 characterized a four breakpoint-insertional-rearrangement-event, resulting in 1q32.1-1q32.3 deletion. Conclusions Considering that the human-specific three-fold segmental duplication of SRGAP2 gene evolutionary corresponds to the beginning of neocortical expansion, we hypothesize that aberrations in SRGAP2 are strong candidates underlying specific brain abnormalities, namely reduced volume of grey matter and reduced gyrification. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13039-016-0221-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Rincic
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine University of Zagreb, Salata 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Milan Rados
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine University of Zagreb, Salata 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Zeljka Krsnik
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine University of Zagreb, Salata 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Kristina Gotovac
- Department for Functional Genomics, Center for Translational and Clinical Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, and University Hospital Center Zagreb, Šalata 2, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Fran Borovecki
- Department for Functional Genomics, Center for Translational and Clinical Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, and University Hospital Center Zagreb, Šalata 2, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia ; Department of Neurology, University Hospital Center Zagreb, Kišpatićeva 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Thomas Liehr
- Institute of Human Genetics, Jena University Hospital, Friedrich Schiller University, Kollegiengasse 10, D-07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Lukrecija Brecevic
- Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine University of Zagreb, Salata 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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17
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Jeon T, Mishra V, Ouyang M, Chen M, Huang H. Synchronous Changes of Cortical Thickness and Corresponding White Matter Microstructure During Brain Development Accessed by Diffusion MRI Tractography from Parcellated Cortex. Front Neuroanat 2015; 9:158. [PMID: 26696839 PMCID: PMC4667005 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2015.00158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cortical thickness (CT) changes during normal brain development is associated with complicated cellular and molecular processes including synaptic pruning and apoptosis. In parallel, the microstructural enhancement of developmental white matter (WM) axons with their neuronal bodies in the cerebral cortex has been widely reported with measurements of metrics derived from diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), especially fractional anisotropy (FA). We hypothesized that the changes of CT and microstructural enhancement of corresponding axons are highly interacted during development. DTI and T1-weighted images of 50 healthy children and adolescents between the ages of 7 and 25 years were acquired. With the parcellated cortical gyri transformed from T1-weighted images to DTI space as the tractography seeds, probabilistic tracking was performed to delineate the WM fibers traced from specific parcellated cortical regions. CT was measured at certain cortical regions and FA was measured from the WM fibers traced from same cortical regions. The CT of all frontal cortical gyri, including Brodmann areas 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 44, 45, 46, and 47, decreased significantly and heterogeneously; concurrently, significant, and heterogeneous increases of FA of WM traced from corresponding regions were found. We further revealed significant correlation between the slopes of the CT decrease and the slopes of corresponding WM FA increase in all frontal cortical gyri, suggesting coherent cortical pruning and corresponding WM microstructural enhancement. Such correlation was not found in cortical regions other than frontal cortex. The molecular and cellular mechanisms of these synchronous changes may be associated with overlapping signaling pathways of axonal guidance, synaptic pruning, neuronal apoptosis, and more prevalent interstitial neurons in the prefrontal cortex. Revealing the coherence of cortical and WM structural changes during development may open a new window for understanding the underlying mechanisms of developing brain circuits and structural abnormality associated with mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Jeon
- Radiology Research, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia PA, USA ; Advanced Imaging Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas TX, USA
| | - Virendra Mishra
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas TX, USA ; Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Cleveland Clinic, Las Vegas NV, USA
| | - Minhui Ouyang
- Radiology Research, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia PA, USA ; Advanced Imaging Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas TX, USA
| | - Min Chen
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson TX, USA
| | - Hao Huang
- Radiology Research, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia PA, USA ; Department of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia PA, USA
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18
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Chen J, Calhoun VD, Arias‐Vasquez A, Zwiers MP, van Hulzen K, Fernández G, Fisher SE, Franke B, Turner JA, Liu J. G-protein genomic association with normal variation in gray matter density. Hum Brain Mapp 2015; 36:4272-86. [PMID: 26248772 PMCID: PMC5667539 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
While detecting genetic variations underlying brain structures helps reveal mechanisms of neural disorders, high data dimensionality poses a major challenge for imaging genomic association studies. In this work, we present the application of a recently proposed approach, parallel independent component analysis with reference (pICA-R), to investigate genomic factors potentially regulating gray matter variation in a healthy population. This approach simultaneously assesses many variables for an aggregate effect and helps to elicit particular features in the data. We applied pICA-R to analyze gray matter density (GMD) images (274,131 voxels) in conjunction with single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data (666,019 markers) collected from 1,256 healthy individuals of the Brain Imaging Genetics (BIG) study. Guided by a genetic reference derived from the gene GNA14, pICA-R identified a significant SNP-GMD association (r=-0.16, P=2.34×10(-8)), implying that subjects with specific genotypes have lower localized GMD. The identified components were then projected to an independent dataset from the Mind Clinical Imaging Consortium (MCIC) including 89 healthy individuals, and the obtained loadings again yielded a significant SNP-GMD association (r=-0.25, P=0.02). The imaging component reflected GMD variations in frontal, precuneus, and cingulate regions. The SNP component was enriched in genes with neuronal functions, including synaptic plasticity, axon guidance, molecular signal transduction via PKA and CREB, highlighting the GRM1, PRKCH, GNA12, and CAMK2B genes. Collectively, our findings suggest that GNA12 and GNA14 play a key role in the genetic architecture underlying normal GMD variation in frontal and parietal regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayu Chen
- The Mind Research NetworkAlbuquerqueNew Mexico
| | - Vince D. Calhoun
- The Mind Research NetworkAlbuquerqueNew Mexico
- Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of New MexicoAlbuquerqueNew Mexico
| | - Alejandro Arias‐Vasquez
- Department of Human GeneticsRadboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourNijmegenThe Netherlands
- Department of Cognitive NeuroscienceRadboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourNijmegenThe Netherlands
- Department of PsychiatryRadboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Marcel P. Zwiers
- Centre for Cognitive NeuroimagingRadboud University Nijmegen, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Kimm van Hulzen
- Department of Human GeneticsRadboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Guillén Fernández
- Department of Cognitive NeuroscienceRadboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Simon E. Fisher
- Language and Genetics DepartmentMax Planck Institute for PsycholinguisticsNijmegenThe Netherlands
- Centre for Neuroscience, Radboud University Nijmegen, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Barbara Franke
- Department of Human GeneticsRadboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourNijmegenThe Netherlands
- Department of PsychiatryRadboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and BehaviourNijmegenThe Netherlands
| | - Jessica A. Turner
- The Mind Research NetworkAlbuquerqueNew Mexico
- Psychology DepartmentGeorgia State UniversityAtlantaGeorgia
- Neuroscience InstituteGeorgia State UniversityAtlantaGeorgia
| | - Jingyu Liu
- The Mind Research NetworkAlbuquerqueNew Mexico
- Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of New MexicoAlbuquerqueNew Mexico
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19
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On-going elucidation of mechanisms of primate specific synaptic spine development using the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Neurosci Res 2015; 93:176-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2014.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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20
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Mitchell JF, Leopold DA. The marmoset monkey as a model for visual neuroscience. Neurosci Res 2015; 93:20-46. [PMID: 25683292 PMCID: PMC4408257 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2015.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Revised: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) has been valuable as a primate model in biomedical research. Interest in this species has grown recently, in part due to the successful demonstration of transgenic marmosets. Here we examine the prospects of the marmoset model for visual neuroscience research, adopting a comparative framework to place the marmoset within a broader evolutionary context. The marmoset's small brain bears most of the organizational features of other primates, and its smooth surface offers practical advantages over the macaque for areal mapping, laminar electrode penetration, and two-photon and optical imaging. Behaviorally, marmosets are more limited at performing regimented psychophysical tasks, but do readily accept the head restraint that is necessary for accurate eye tracking and neurophysiology, and can perform simple discriminations. Their natural gaze behavior closely resembles that of other primates, with a tendency to focus on objects of social interest including faces. Their immaturity at birth and routine twinning also makes them ideal for the study of postnatal visual development. These experimental factors, together with the theoretical advantages inherent in comparing anatomy, physiology, and behavior across related species, make the marmoset an excellent model for visual neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jude F Mitchell
- Brain and Cognitive Sciences Department, Meliora Hall, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA.
| | - David A Leopold
- Section on Cognitive Neurophysiology and Imaging, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; Neurophysiology Imaging Facility, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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21
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Postnatal development of dendritic structure of layer III pyramidal neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex of marmoset. Brain Struct Funct 2014; 220:3245-58. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-014-0853-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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