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Giustarini D, Milzani A, Dalle-Donne I, Rossi R. Measurement of S-glutathionylated proteins by HPLC. Amino Acids 2021; 54:675-686. [PMID: 34129091 PMCID: PMC9117368 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-021-03015-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
S-glutathionylated proteins (GSSP), i.e., protein-mixed disulfides with glutathione (GSH), are considered a suitable biomarker of oxidative stress. In fact, they occur within cells at low level and their concentration increases markedly under pro-oxidant conditions. Plasma is something different, since it is physiologically rich in S-thiolated proteins (RSSP), i.e., protein-mixed disulfides with various types of low molecular mass thiols (LMM-SH). However, albumin, which is largely the most abundant plasma protein, possesses a cysteine residue at position 34 that is mostly reduced (about 60%) under physiological conditions, but easily involved in the formation of additional RSSP in the presence of oxidants. The quantification of GSSP requires special attention to sample handling, since their level can be overestimated as a result of artefactual oxidation of GSH. We have developed the present protocol to avoid this methodological problem. Samples should be treated as soon as possible after their collection with the alkylating agent N-ethylmaleimide that masks –SH groups and prevents their oxidation. The GSH released from mixed disulfides by reduction with dithiothreitol is then labeled with the fluorescent probe monobromobimane and quantified by HPLC. The method can be applied to many different biological samples, comprising blood components, red blood cell plasma membrane, cultured cells, and solid organs from animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Giustarini
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 4, 53100, Siena, Italy.
| | - Aldo Milzani
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Università Degli Studi Di Milano, via Celoria 26, I-20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Isabella Dalle-Donne
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Università Degli Studi Di Milano, via Celoria 26, I-20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Ranieri Rossi
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 4, 53100, Siena, Italy
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2
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Strážnická M, Marková S, Searle JB, Kotlík P. Playing Hide-and-Seek in Beta-Globin Genes: Gene Conversion Transferring a Beneficial Mutation between Differentially Expressed Gene Duplicates. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:genes9100492. [PMID: 30321987 PMCID: PMC6209878 DOI: 10.3390/genes9100492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 10/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that adaptation to diverse environments often involves selection on existing variation rather than new mutations. A previous study identified a nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in exon 2 of two paralogous β-globin genes of the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) in Britain in which the ancestral serine (Ser) and the derived cysteine (Cys) allele represent geographically partitioned functional variation affecting the erythrocyte antioxidative capacity. Here we studied the geographical pattern of the two-locus Ser/Cys polymorphism throughout Europe and tested for the geographic correlation between environmental variables and allele frequency, expected if the polymorphism was under spatially heterogeneous environment-related selection. Although bank vole population history clearly is important in shaping the dispersal of the oxidative stress protective Cys allele, analyses correcting for population structure suggest the Europe-wide pattern is affected by geographical variation in environmental conditions. The β-globin phenotype is encoded by the major paralog HBB-T1 but we found evidence of bidirectional gene conversion of exon 2 with the low-expression paralog HBB-T2. Our data support the model where gene conversion reshuffling genotypes between high- and low- expressed paralogs enables tuning of erythrocyte thiol levels, which may help maintain intracellular redox balance under fluctuating environmental conditions. Therefore, our study suggests a possible role for gene conversion between differentially expressed gene duplicates as a mechanism of physiological adaptation of populations to new or changing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela Strážnická
- Laboratory of Molecular Ecology, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Rumburská 89, 27721 Liběchov, Czech Republic.
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 12844 Prague 2, Czech Republic.
- Department of Animal Science and Food Processing, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague 6-Suchdol, Czech Republic.
| | - Silvia Marková
- Laboratory of Molecular Ecology, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Rumburská 89, 27721 Liběchov, Czech Republic.
| | - Jeremy B Searle
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
| | - Petr Kotlík
- Laboratory of Molecular Ecology, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Rumburská 89, 27721 Liběchov, Czech Republic.
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Giustarini D, Colombo G, Garavaglia ML, Astori E, Portinaro NM, Reggiani F, Badalamenti S, Aloisi AM, Santucci A, Rossi R, Milzani A, Dalle-Donne I. Assessment of glutathione/glutathione disulphide ratio and S-glutathionylated proteins in human blood, solid tissues, and cultured cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 112:360-375. [PMID: 28807817 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione (GSH) is the major non-protein thiol in humans and other mammals, which is present in millimolar concentrations within cells, but at much lower concentrations in the blood plasma. GSH and GSH-related enzymes act both to prevent oxidative damage and to detoxify electrophiles. Under oxidative stress, two GSH molecules become linked by a disulphide bridge to form glutathione disulphide (GSSG). Therefore, assessment of the GSH/GSSG ratio may provide an estimation of cellular redox metabolism. Current evidence resulting from studies in human blood, solid tissues, and cultured cells suggests that GSH also plays a prominent role in protein redox regulation via S -glutathionylation, i.e., the conjugation of GSH to reactive protein cysteine residues. A number of methodologies that enable quantitative analysis of GSH/GSSG ratio and S-glutathionylated proteins (PSSG), as well as identification and visualization of PSSG in tissue sections or cultured cells are currently available. Here, we have considered the main methodologies applied for GSH, GSSG and PSSG detection in biological samples. This review paper provides an up-to-date critical overview of the application of the most relevant analytical, morphological, and proteomics approaches to detect and analyse GSH, GSSG and PSSG in mammalian samples as well as discusses their current limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Giustarini
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Graziano Colombo
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Emanuela Astori
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Nicola Marcello Portinaro
- Clinica ortopedica e traumatologica, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Reggiani
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Salvatore Badalamenti
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, 20089 Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Aloisi
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neurosciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Annalisa Santucci
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Ranieri Rossi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Aldo Milzani
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Isabella Dalle-Donne
- Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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4
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Dalle-Donne I, Colombo G, Gornati R, Garavaglia ML, Portinaro N, Giustarini D, Bernardini G, Rossi R, Milzani A. Protein Carbonylation in Human Smokers and Mammalian Models of Exposure to Cigarette Smoke: Focus on Redox Proteomic Studies. Antioxid Redox Signal 2017; 26:406-426. [PMID: 27393565 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2016.6772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Oxidative stress is one mechanism whereby tobacco smoking affects human health, as reflected by increased levels of several biomarkers of oxidative stress/damage isolated from tissues and biological fluids of active and passive smokers. Many investigations of cigarette smoke (CS)-induced oxidative stress/damage have been carried out in mammalian animal and cellular models of exposure to CS. Animal models allow the investigation of many parameters that are similar to those measured in human smokers. In vitro cell models may provide new information on molecular and functional differences between cells of smokers and nonsmokers. Recent Advances: Over the past decade or so, a growing number of researches highlighted that CS induces protein carbonylation in different tissues and body fluids of smokers as well as in in vivo and in vitro models of exposure to CS. CRITICAL ISSUES We review recent findings on protein carbonylation in smokers and models thereof, focusing on redox proteomic studies. We also discuss the relevance and limitations of these models of exposure to CS and critically assess the congruence between the smoker's condition and laboratory models. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The identification of protein targets is crucial for understanding the mechanism(s) by which carbonylated proteins accumulate and potentially affect cellular functions. Recent progress in redox proteomics allows the enrichment, identification, and characterization of specific oxidative protein modifications, including carbonylation. Therefore, redox proteomics can be a powerful tool to gain new insights into the onset and/or progression of CS-related diseases and to develop strategies to prevent and/or treat them. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 26, 406-426.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Graziano Colombo
- 1 Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano , Milan, Italy
| | - Rosalba Gornati
- 2 Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria , Varese, Italy
| | - Maria L Garavaglia
- 1 Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano , Milan, Italy
| | - Nicola Portinaro
- 3 Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano and Pediatric Orthopaedic Unit, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center , Rozzano (Milan), Italy
| | | | - Giovanni Bernardini
- 2 Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria , Varese, Italy
| | - Ranieri Rossi
- 4 Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena , Siena, Italy
| | - Aldo Milzani
- 1 Department of Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano , Milan, Italy
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Zhang WQ, Smolik CM, Barba-Escobedo PA, Gamez M, Sanchez JJ, Javors MA, Daws LC, Gould GG. Acute dietary tryptophan manipulation differentially alters social behavior, brain serotonin and plasma corticosterone in three inbred mouse strains. Neuropharmacology 2015; 90:1-8. [PMID: 25445490 PMCID: PMC4276517 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Revised: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Clinical evidence indicates brain serotonin (5-HT) stores and neurotransmission may be inadequate in subpopulations of individuals with autism, and this may contribute to characteristically impaired social behaviors. Findings that depletion of the 5-HT precursor tryptophan (TRP) worsens autism symptoms support this hypothesis. Yet dietetic studies show and parents report that many children with autism consume less TRP than peers. To measure the impact of dietary TRP content on social behavior, we administered either diets devoid of TRP, with standard TRP (0.2 g%), or with 1% added TRP (1.2 g%) overnight to three mouse strains. Of these, BTBRT(+)Itpr3(tf)/J and 129S1/SvImJ consistently exhibit low preference for social interaction relative to C57BL/6. We found that TRP depletion reduced C57BL/6 and 129S social interaction preference, while TRP enhancement improved BTBR sociability (p < 0.05; N = 8-10). Subsequent marble burying did not differ among diets or strains. After behavior tests, brain TRP levels and plasma corticosterone were higher in TRP enhanced C57BL/6 and BTBR, while 5-HT levels were reduced in all strains by TRP depletion (p < 0.05; N = 4-10). Relative hyperactivity of BTBR and hypoactivity of 129S, evident in self-grooming and chamber entries during sociability tests, were uninfluenced by dietary TRP. Our findings demonstrate mouse sociability and brain 5-HT turnover are reduced by acute TRP depletion, and can be enhanced by TRP supplementation. This outcome warrants further basic and clinical studies employing biomarker combinations such as TRP metabolism and 5-HT regulated hormones to characterize conditions wherein TRP supplementation may best ameliorate sociability deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wynne Q Zhang
- Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA; Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Corey M Smolik
- Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Priscilla A Barba-Escobedo
- Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA; Texas A&M University at San Antonio, TX 78224, USA
| | - Monica Gamez
- Texas A&M University at San Antonio, TX 78224, USA
| | - Jesus J Sanchez
- Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Martin A Javors
- Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Lynette C Daws
- Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Georgianna G Gould
- Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA.
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Kotlík P, Marková S, Vojtek L, Stratil A, Slechta V, Hyršl P, Searle JB. Adaptive phylogeography: functional divergence between haemoglobins derived from different glacial refugia in the bank vole. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 281:rspb.2014.0021. [PMID: 24827438 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.0021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the years, researchers have used presumptively neutral molecular variation to infer the origins of current species' distributions in northern latitudes (especially Europe). However, several reported examples of genic and chromosomal replacements suggest that end-glacial colonizations of particular northern areas may have involved genetic input from different source populations at different times, coupled with competition and selection. We investigate the functional consequences of differences between two bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) haemoglobins deriving from different glacial refugia, one of which partially replaced the other in Britain during end-glacial climate warming. This allows us to examine their adaptive divergence and hence a possible role of selection in the replacement. We determine the amino acid substitution Ser52Cys in the major expressed β-globin gene as the allelic difference. We use structural modelling to reveal that the protein environment renders the 52Cys thiol a highly reactive functional group and we show its reactivity in vitro. We demonstrate that possessing the reactive thiol in haemoglobin increases the resistance of bank vole erythrocytes to oxidative stress. Our study thus provides striking evidence for physiological differences between products of genic variants that spread at the expense of one another during colonization of an area from different glacial refugia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Kotlík
- Laboratory of Molecular Ecology, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Liběchov 27721, Czech Republic
| | - Silvia Marková
- Laboratory of Molecular Ecology, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Liběchov 27721, Czech Republic
| | - Libor Vojtek
- Department of Animal Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno 61137, Czech Republic
| | - Antonín Stratil
- Laboratory of Molecular Ecology, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Liběchov 27721, Czech Republic
| | - Vlastimil Slechta
- Laboratory of Fish Genetics, Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Liběchov 27721, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Hyršl
- Department of Animal Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno 61137, Czech Republic
| | - Jeremy B Searle
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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7
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Cheviron ZA, Natarajan C, Projecto-Garcia J, Eddy DK, Jones J, Carling MD, Witt CC, Moriyama H, Weber RE, Fago A, Storz JF. Integrating evolutionary and functional tests of adaptive hypotheses: a case study of altitudinal differentiation in hemoglobin function in an Andean Sparrow, Zonotrichia capensis. Mol Biol Evol 2014; 31:2948-62. [PMID: 25135942 PMCID: PMC4209134 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msu234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In air-breathing vertebrates, the physiologically optimal blood-O2 affinity is jointly determined by the prevailing partial pressure of atmospheric O2, the efficacy of pulmonary O2 transfer, and internal metabolic demands. Consequently, genetic variation in the oxygenation properties of hemoglobin (Hb) may be subject to spatially varying selection in species with broad elevational distributions. Here we report the results of a combined functional and evolutionary analysis of Hb polymorphism in the rufous-collared sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis), a species that is continuously distributed across a steep elevational gradient on the Pacific slope of the Peruvian Andes. We integrated a population genomic analysis that included all postnatally expressed Hb genes with functional studies of naturally occurring Hb variants, as well as recombinant Hb (rHb) mutants that were engineered through site-directed mutagenesis. We identified three clinally varying amino acid polymorphisms: Two in the α(A)-globin gene, which encodes the α-chain subunits of the major HbA isoform, and one in the α(D)-globin gene, which encodes the α-chain subunits of the minor HbD isoform. We then constructed and experimentally tested single- and double-mutant rHbs representing each of the alternative α(A)-globin genotypes that predominate at different elevations. Although the locus-specific patterns of altitudinal differentiation suggested a history of spatially varying selection acting on Hb polymorphism, the experimental tests demonstrated that the observed amino acid mutations have no discernible effect on respiratory properties of the HbA or HbD isoforms. These results highlight the importance of experimentally validating the hypothesized effects of genetic changes in protein function to avoid the pitfalls of adaptive storytelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A Cheviron
- Department of Animal Biology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
| | | | | | - Douglas K Eddy
- Department of Animal Biology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
| | - Jennifer Jones
- Department of Animal Biology, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
| | | | - Christopher C Witt
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico Museum of Southwestern Biology, University of New Mexico
| | | | - Roy E Weber
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Angela Fago
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jay F Storz
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln
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Hemoglobin as a major binding protein for methylmercury in white-sided dolphin liver. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 406:1121-9. [PMID: 23942567 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7274-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2013] [Revised: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
As methylmercury (MeHg) can be bioaccumulated and biomagnified in the trophic web, its toxicity for marine mammals is of major concern. Mercury speciation in marine biota has been widely studied, mainly focused on the discrimination and quantification of inorganic Hg and MeHg. Less attention has been paid to the interactions of Hg with biomolecules and the characterization of its specific binding, which play a key role in metabolic pathways controlling its uptake, transformation, and toxicity. In the studied white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus) liver homogenate (QC04LH4) sample, approximately 60% of the total MeHg was found in the water soluble fraction, specifically associated with high molecular weight biomolecules. The identity of the involved proteins was investigated (after tryptic digestion of the fraction) by μRPLC with parallel detection by ICP-MS and ESI-MS/MS. Molecular mass spectrometry experiments were carried out at high resolution (100000) to ensure accurate protein identification and determination of the MeHg binding sites. Cysteine residue on the dolphin hemoglobin β chain was found to be the main MeHg binding site, suggesting that hemoglobin is a major MeHg binding protein in this marine mammal and could be a potential carrier of this MeHg from blood to liver prior to its degradation in this organ. In parallel, a significant proportion of selenium was found to be present as selenoneine and a potential role for this compound in Hg detoxification is discussed.
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9
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Giustarini D, Dalle-Donne I, Lorenzini S, Selvi E, Colombo G, Milzani A, Fanti P, Rossi R. Protein thiolation index (PTI) as a biomarker of oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med 2012; 53:907-15. [PMID: 22732185 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Several biomarkers of oxidative stress have been proposed and used in clinical research but so far unreliable or, at least, controversial results have been obtained. Given the high susceptibility of sulfhydryl groups to oxidation, we here suggest the use of a protein thiolation index (PTI), i.e., the molar ratio between the sum of all low molecular mass thiols bound to plasma proteins (forming, as a whole, S-thiolated proteins) and protein free cysteinyl residues, as a suitable biomarker of oxidative stress. While titration of free thiols can be performed by a simple spectrophotometric procedure, accurate quantification of S-thiolated proteins is problematic and current methods require, in most cases, application of time-consuming chromatographic techniques, making their application to large-scale clinical studies difficult. Here we report a new spectrophotometric method which relies on the specific determination of low molecular mass thiols released from S-thiolated proteins after dithiothreitol reduction. These amino acids can be titrated by conjugation with ninhydrin which, reacting with primary and secondary amine groups, yields a deep blue-purple color, which can be spectrophotometrically revealed. PTI showed an age dependency with a near linear increase during aging in humans. In addition, PTI was significantly higher in patients suffering from alkaptonuria with respect to healthy controls, suggesting that increased prooxidant conditions occur in the blood of these subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Giustarini
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 4, I-53100, Siena, Italy
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10
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Storz JF, Weber RE, Fago A. Oxygenation properties and oxidation rates of mouse hemoglobins that differ in reactive cysteine content. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2011; 161:265-70. [PMID: 22119205 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2011] [Revised: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
House mice (genus Mus) harbor extensive allelic variation at two tandemly duplicated genes that encode the β-chain subunits of adult hemoglobin (Hb). Alternative haplotypes differ in the level of sequence divergence between the two β-globin gene duplicates: the Hbb(d) and Hbb(p) haplotypes harbor two structurally distinct β-globin genes, whereas the Hbb(s) haplotype harbors two β-globin duplicates that are identical in sequence. One especially salient difference between the s-type Hbs relative to the d- and p-type Hbs relates to the number of reactive β-chain cysteine residues. In addition to the highly conserved cysteine residue at β93, the d- and p-type Hbs contain an additional reactive cysteine residue at β13. To assess the functional consequences of allelic variation in β-globin cysteine content, we measured O(2)-binding properties and H(2)O(2)-induced oxidation rates of mono- and dicysteinyl β-Hbs from 4 different inbred strains of mice: C57BL/6J, BALB/cJ, MSM/Ms, and CAROLI/EiJ. The experiments revealed that purified Hbs from the various mouse strains did not exhibit substantial variation in O(2)-binding properties, but s-type Hb (which contains a single reactive β-chain cysteine residue) was far more readily oxidized to Fe(3+) metHb by H(2)O(2) than other mouse Hbs that contain two reactive β-chain cysteine residues. These results suggest that the possession of an additional reactive cysteine residue may protect against metHb formation under oxidizing conditions. The allelic differences in β-globin cysteine content could affect aspects of redox signaling and oxidative/nitrosative stress responses that are mediated by Hb-S-nitrosylation and Hb-S-glutathionylation pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay F Storz
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
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11
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THEODOROU ANASTASIOSA, NIKOLAIDIS MICHALISG, PASCHALIS VASSILIS, SAKELLARIOU GEORGIOSK, FATOUROS IOANNISG, KOUTEDAKIS YIANNIS, JAMURTAS ATHANASIOSZ. Comparison between Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase-Deficient and Normal Individuals after Eccentric Exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2010; 42:1113-21. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3181c67ecd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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12
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Evolutionary and functional properties of a two-locus beta-globin polymorphism in Indian house mice. Genetics 2010; 184:1121-31. [PMID: 20100937 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.109.113506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrophoretic surveys of hemoglobin (Hb) polymorphism in house mice from South Asia and the Middle East have revealed that two alternative beta-globin haplotypes, Hbb(d) and Hbb(p), are often present at intermediate frequencies in geographically disparate populations. Both haplotypes harbor two functionally distinct beta-globin paralogs, HBB-T1 (which encodes the beta-chain subunits of the major Hb isoform) and HBB-T2 (which encodes the beta-chains of the minor Hb isoform). The Hbb(d) and Hbb(p) haplotypes share identical HBB-T1 alleles, but products of the alternative HBB-T2 alleles (d(minor) and p(minor)) are distinguished by two amino acid substitutions. To investigate the possible adaptive significance of the Hbb(d)/Hbb(p) polymorphism we conducted a population genetic analysis of the duplicated beta-globin genes of Indian house mice (Mus castaneus) in conjunction with experimental studies of Hb function in inbred strains of mice that carry the alternative Hbb(d) and Hbb(p) haplotypes. The main objectives of this study were (i) to characterize patterns of nucleotide polymorphism and linkage disequilibrium in the duplicated beta-globin genes of M. castaneus, (ii) to test the hypothesis that the Hbb(d) and Hbb(p) haplotypes are maintained as a balanced polymorphism, and (iii) to assess whether allelic differences in the alternative minor Hb isoforms (d(minor) and p(minor)) are associated with different O(2)-binding properties. A multilocus analysis of polymorphism and divergence revealed that levels of diversity at the HBB-T2 gene exceeded neutral expectations, and reconstructed haplotype networks for both beta-globin paralogs revealed extensive allele sharing with several other closely related species of Mus. However, despite this suggestive evidence for balancing selection, O(2)-equilibrium curves revealed no discernible functional differences between red cell lysates containing the d(minor) and p(minor) Hb isoforms. If the d(minor) and p(minor) alleles are maintained as a balanced polymorphism, our results indicate that the associated fitness variance is not directly related to respiratory functions of Hb.
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Cellular redox potential and hemoglobin S-glutathionylation in human and rat erythrocytes: A comparative study. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2009; 44:133-9. [PMID: 19963409 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcmd.2009.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2009] [Revised: 09/30/2009] [Accepted: 11/11/2009] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The rat is commonly used to evaluate responses of red blood cells (RBCs) to oxidative stress. How closely the rat RBC model predicts the human RBC human response has not been well characterized. The objective of this study was to compare human and rat RBC responses to the thiol-specific oxidant tert-butylhydroperoxide by monitoring the intraerythrocyte glutathione redox potential and its correlation with hemoglobin S-glutathionylation. Changes in redox potential did not differ significantly between rat and human RBCs under the considered conditions, and both human and rat hemoglobins were apparently S-glutathionylated by a thiol-disulfide exchange mechanism with glutathione disulfide, though the extent of S-glutathionylation in rat erythrocytes was more than 10-fold higher than in human ones. On the contrary, human and rat hemoglobin S-glutathionylation differently correlated with redox potential for the glutathione redox couple, suggesting that the formation of S-glutathionylated hemoglobin was not simply a function of glutathione disulfide concentration or glutathione/glutathione disulfide ratio and that the content of reactive cysteines in hemoglobin beta globin can strongly influence intraerythrocyte glutathione metabolism and distribution between free and hemoglobin-bound forms. This study reveals fundamental physiological differences in rat and human RBCs because of differences in rat and human beta globin cysteine and reactivity, which can have important implications for the study of rat biology as a whole and for the use of rats as models for human beings under physiological and pathological circumstances and, therefore, highlights the need for caution when extrapolating rat responses to humans.
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Analysis of murine S-glutathionyl hemoglobins and beta globin haplotype by dynamic capillary isoelectric focusing. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2009; 877:3462-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2009.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2009] [Revised: 06/02/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Blood as a reactive species generator and redox status regulator during exercise. Arch Biochem Biophys 2009; 490:77-84. [PMID: 19712664 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2009.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2009] [Revised: 08/04/2009] [Accepted: 08/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The exact origin of reactive species and oxidative damage detected in blood is largely unknown. Blood interacts with all organs and tissues and, consequently, with many possible sources of reactive species. In addition, a multitude of oxidizable substrates are already in blood. A muscle-centric approach is frequently adopted to explain reactive species generation, which obscures the possibility that sources of reactive species and oxidative damage other than skeletal muscle may be also at work during exercise. Plasma and blood cells can autonomously produce significant amounts of reactive species at rest and during exercise. The major reactive species generators located in blood during exercise may be erythrocytes (mainly due to their quantity) and leukocytes (mainly due to their drastic activation during exercise). Therefore, it is plausible to assume that oxidative stress/damage measured frequently in blood after exercise or any other experimental intervention derives, at least in part, from the blood.
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Rossi R, Giustarini D, Fineschi S, De Cunto G, Lungarella G, Cavarra E. Differential thiol status in blood of different mouse strains exposed to cigarette smoke. Free Radic Res 2009; 43:538-45. [PMID: 19370473 DOI: 10.1080/10715760902893332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
C57Bl/6J, DBA/2 and ICR mouse strains are known to possess different susceptibilities to developing emphysema after exposure to cigarette smoke with DBA/2 and C57Bl/6J strains being significantly more susceptible to pulmonary damage than the ICR strain. This study was aimed at analysing the occurrence of systemic oxidative stress in the blood of these different mouse strains after exposure to cigarette smoke. This study did not observe a significant decrease in glutathione in erythrocytes or in plasma cysteine, cysteinylglycine, homocysteine and glutathione in C57Bl/6J or DBA/2 mice, whereas a significant increase in the corresponding oxidized forms was observed in plasma. However, the ICR strain showed a significant increase in glutathione in erythrocytes and a significant decrease in most of the oxidized forms of cysteine, cysteinylglycine, homocysteine and glutathione in plasma after the same exposition. These experiments demonstrate that exposure to cigarette smoking induces systemic oxidative stress only in some mouse strains which are susceptible to developing emphysema.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranieri Rossi
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Experimental Medicine & Public Health, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
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Storz JF, Baze M, Waite JL, Hoffmann FG, Opazo JC, Hayes JP. Complex signatures of selection and gene conversion in the duplicated globin genes of house mice. Genetics 2007; 177:481-500. [PMID: 17660536 PMCID: PMC2013706 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.107.078550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Results of electrophoretic surveys have suggested that hemoglobin polymorphism may be maintained by balancing selection in natural populations of house mice, Mus musculus. Here we report a survey of nucleotide variation in the adult globin genes of house mice from South America. We surveyed nucleotide polymorphism in two closely linked alpha-globin paralogs and two closely linked beta-globin paralogs to test whether patterns of variation are consistent with a model of long-term balancing selection. Surprisingly high levels of nucleotide polymorphism at the two beta-globin paralogs were attributable to the segregation of two highly divergent haplotypes, Hbbs (which carries two identical beta-globin paralogs) and Hbbd (which carries two functionally divergent beta-globin paralogs). Interparalog gene conversion on the Hbbs haplotype has produced a highly unusual situation in which the two paralogs are more similar to one another than either one is to its allelic counterpart on the Hbbd haplotype. Levels of nucleotide polymorphism and linkage disequilibrium at the two beta-globin paralogs suggest a complex history of diversity-enhancing selection that may be responsible for long-term maintenance of alternative protein alleles. The alternative two-locus beta-globin haplotypes are associated with pronounced differences in intraerythrocyte glutathione and nitric oxide metabolism, suggesting a possible mechanism for selection on hemoglobin function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay F Storz
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588, USA.
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Dafre AL, Brandão TA, Reischl E. Involvement of vertebrate hemoglobin in antioxidant protection: chicken blood as a model. CAN J ZOOL 2007. [DOI: 10.1139/z07-020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Redox balance can be described as the equilibrium between oxidative and reductive forces within the cell. These forces control several cellular events, including the modulation of redox-sensitive receptors and signaling pathways. In cells, glutathione is the major non-protein thiol and is considered the main redox buffer. The ratio between the oxidized (GSSG) and reduced (GSH) forms reflects the cellular redox balance. Reactive protein thiols, including vertebrate hemoglobin (Hb), have been proposed as effective antioxidants that can contribute to the redox balance. To further explore this possibility, chicken ( Gallus gallus (L., 1758)) blood was used as a model system. The use of known oxidants (hydroperoxides, diamide, and a system generating reactive oxygen species) originated a pattern of glutathiolation in chicken erythrocytes that was fully reversed after removal of the oxidant, this being consistent with a physiological response. The glutathiolation sequence correlates to kinetic data on chicken Hb cysteine reactivity. The major chicken hemoglobin (Hb A) is responsible for most of the glutathiolated protein where the presence of externally positioned and fast-reacting cysteines is a contributing factor. The antioxidant potential of fast-reacting Hb cysteines is in line with the conservation of cysteine residues in Hb stereochemical positions in more than 95% of the available avian Hb sequences. This may represent an evolutionary trend for the antioxidant function of externally positioned and reactive cysteines in abundant proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alcir Luiz Dafre
- Laboratório de Defesas Celulares, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
- Laboratório de Catálise e Fenômenos Interfaciais, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
- Formerly from Curso de Pós-Graduação em Fisiologia and Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Tiago A.S. Brandão
- Laboratório de Defesas Celulares, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
- Laboratório de Catálise e Fenômenos Interfaciais, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
- Formerly from Curso de Pós-Graduação em Fisiologia and Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Evaldo Reischl
- Laboratório de Defesas Celulares, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
- Laboratório de Catálise e Fenômenos Interfaciais, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
- Formerly from Curso de Pós-Graduação em Fisiologia and Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 90050-170 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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