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Gil-Martins E, Cagide-Fagín F, Martins D, Borer A, Barbosa DJ, Fernandes C, Chavarria D, Remião F, Borges F, Silva R. Mechanistic Insights into the Neurotoxicity of 2,5-Dimethoxyphenethylamines (2C) and Corresponding N-(2-methoxybenzyl)phenethylamine (NBOMe) Drugs. J Xenobiot 2024; 14:772-797. [PMID: 38921653 PMCID: PMC11204507 DOI: 10.3390/jox14020044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Substituted phenethylamines including 2C (2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamines) and NBOMe (N-(2-methoxybenzyl)phenethylamines) drugs are potent psychoactive substances with little to no knowledge available on their toxicity. In the present in vitro study, we explored the mechanisms underlying the neurotoxicity of six substituted phenethylamines: 2C-T-2, 2C-T-4, 2C-T-7 and their corresponding NBOMes. These drugs were synthesized and chemically characterized, and their cytotoxicity (0-1000 μM) was evaluated in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells and primary rat cortical cultures, by the NR uptake and MTT reduction assays. In differentiated SH-SY5Y cells, mitochondrial membrane potential, intracellular ATP and calcium levels, reactive oxygen species production, and intracellular total glutathione levels were also evaluated. All the tested drugs exhibited concentration-dependent cytotoxic effects towards differentiated SH-SY5Y cells and primary rat cortical cultures. The NBOMe drugs presented higher cytotoxicity than their counterparts, which correlates with the drug's lipophilicity. These cytotoxic effects were associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, evident through mitochondrial membrane depolarization and lowered intracellular ATP levels. Intracellular calcium imbalance was observed for 2C-T-7 and 25T7-NBOMe, implying a disrupted calcium regulation. Although reactive species levels remained unchanged, a reduction in intracellular total GSH content was observed. Overall, these findings contribute to a deeper understanding of these drugs, shedding light on the mechanisms underpinning their neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Gil-Martins
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (E.G.-M.); (A.B.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (D.M.); (C.F.); (D.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Fernando Cagide-Fagín
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (D.M.); (C.F.); (D.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Daniel Martins
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (D.M.); (C.F.); (D.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Ana Borer
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (E.G.-M.); (A.B.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Daniel José Barbosa
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, University Institute of Health Sciences-CESPU, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal;
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Translational Toxicology Research Laboratory, University Institute of Health Sciences (1H-TOXRUN, IUCS-CESPU), 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Carlos Fernandes
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (D.M.); (C.F.); (D.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Daniel Chavarria
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (D.M.); (C.F.); (D.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Fernando Remião
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (E.G.-M.); (A.B.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernanda Borges
- CIQUP-IMS/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (D.M.); (C.F.); (D.C.); (F.B.)
| | - Renata Silva
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (E.G.-M.); (A.B.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO-Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
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Xiang J, Wen D, Zhai W, Zhao J, Xiang P, Ma C, Shi Y. Metabolic characterization of 25X-NBOH and 25X-NBOMe phenethylamines based on UHPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap MS in human liver microsomes. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2024; 242:116020. [PMID: 38359493 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2024.116020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The types and quantities of new psychoactive substances synthesized based on structural modifications have increased rapidly in recent years and pose a great challenge to clinical and forensic laboratories. N-benzyl derivatives of phenethylamines, 25B-NBOH, 25E-NBOH, 25H-NBOH, and 25iP-NBOMe have begun to flow into the black market and have caused several poisoning cases and even fatal cases. The aim of this study was to avoid false negative results by detecting the parent drug and its metabolites to extend the detection window in biological matrices and provide basic data for the simultaneous determination of illegal drugs and metabolites in forensic and emergency cases. To facilitate the comparison of metabolic characteristics, we divided the four compounds into two groups of types, 25X-NBOH and 25X-NBOMe. The in vitro phase I and phase II metabolism of these four compounds was investigated by incubating 10 mg mL-1 pooled human liver microsomes with co-substrates for 180 min at 37 ℃, and then analyzing the reaction mixture using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/electrostatic field orbitrap mass spectrometry. In total, 70 metabolites were obtained for the four compounds. The major biotransformations were O-demethylation, hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, N-dehydroxybenzyl, N-demethoxybenzyl, oxidate transformation to ketone and carboxylate, glucuronidation, and their combination reactions. We recommended the major metabolites with high peak area ratio as biomarkers, B2-1 (56.61%), B2-2 (17.43%) and B6 (17.78%) for 25B-NBOH, E2-1 (42.81%), E2-2 (34.90%) and E8-2 (10.18%) for 25E-NBOH, H5 (49.28%), H2-1 (21.54%), and H1 (18.37%) for 25H-NBOH, P3-1 (10.94%), P3-2 (33.18%), P3-3 (14.85%) and P12-2 (23.00%) for 25iP-NBOMe. This is a study to evaluate their metabolic characteristics in detail. Comparative analysis of the N-benzyl derivatives of phenethylamines provided basic data for elucidating their pharmacology and toxicity. Timely analysis of the metabolic profiles of compounds with abuse potential will facilitate the early development of regulatory measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahong Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China; College of Forensic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Hebei Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Forensic Medical Molecular Identification, Research Unit of Digestive Tract Microecosystem Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050017, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Di Wen
- College of Forensic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Hebei Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Forensic Medical Molecular Identification, Research Unit of Digestive Tract Microecosystem Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050017, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Wenya Zhai
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China
| | - Junbo Zhao
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China
| | - Chunling Ma
- College of Forensic Medicine, Hebei Medical University, Hebei Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Collaborative Innovation Center of Forensic Medical Molecular Identification, Research Unit of Digestive Tract Microecosystem Pharmacology and Toxicology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050017, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Yan Shi
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Key Laboratory of Forensic Sciences, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai 200063, PR China.
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Rendić SP, Crouch RD, Guengerich FP. Roles of selected non-P450 human oxidoreductase enzymes in protective and toxic effects of chemicals: review and compilation of reactions. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:2145-2246. [PMID: 35648190 PMCID: PMC9159052 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03304-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This is an overview of the metabolic reactions of drugs, natural products, physiological compounds, and other (general) chemicals catalyzed by flavin monooxygenase (FMO), monoamine oxidase (MAO), NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO), and molybdenum hydroxylase enzymes (aldehyde oxidase (AOX) and xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR)), including roles as substrates, inducers, and inhibitors of the enzymes. The metabolism and bioactivation of selected examples of each group (i.e., drugs, “general chemicals,” natural products, and physiological compounds) are discussed. We identified a higher fraction of bioactivation reactions for FMO enzymes compared to other enzymes, predominately involving drugs and general chemicals. With MAO enzymes, physiological compounds predominate as substrates, and some products lead to unwanted side effects or illness. AOX and XOR enzymes are molybdenum hydroxylases that catalyze the oxidation of various heteroaromatic rings and aldehydes and the reduction of a number of different functional groups. While neither of these two enzymes contributes substantially to the metabolism of currently marketed drugs, AOX has become a frequently encountered route of metabolism among drug discovery programs in the past 10–15 years. XOR has even less of a role in the metabolism of clinical drugs and preclinical drug candidates than AOX, likely due to narrower substrate specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rachel D Crouch
- College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Lipscomb University, Nashville, TN, 37204, USA
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
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Novel Phenethylamines and Their Potential Interactions With Prescription Drugs: A Systematic Critical Review. Ther Drug Monit 2021; 42:271-281. [PMID: 32022784 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The novel phenethylamines 4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA) and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (2C-B) fall in the top 10 most used new psychoactive substances (NPSs) among high-risk substance users. Various phenethylamines and NPS are also highly used in populations with mental disorders, depression, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Moreover, NPS use is highly prevalent among men and women with risky sexual behavior. Considering these specific populations and their frequent concurrent use of drugs, such as antidepressants, ADHD medication, and antiretrovirals, reports on potential interactions between these drugs, and phenethylamines 4-FA and 2C-B, were reviewed. METHODS The authors performed a systematic literature review on 4-FA and 2C-B interactions with antidepressants (citalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine, sertraline, duloxetine, bupropion, venlafaxine, phenelzine, moclobemide, and tranylcypromine), ADHD medications (atomoxetine, dexamphetamine, methylphenidate, and modafinil), and antiretrovirals. RESULTS Limited literature exists on the pharmacokinetics and drug-drug interactions of 2C-B and 4-FA. Only one case report indicated a possible interaction between 4-FA and ADHD medication. Although pharmacokinetic interactions between 4-FA and prescription drugs remain speculative, their pharmacodynamic points toward interactions between 4-FA and ADHD medication and antidepressants. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile of 2C-B also points toward such interactions, between 2C-B and prescription drugs such as antidepressants and ADHD medication. CONCLUSIONS A drug-drug (phenethylamine-prescription drug) interaction potential is anticipated, mainly involving monoamine oxidases for 2C-B and 4-FA, with monoamine transporters being more specific to 4-FA.
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The Clinical Toxicology of 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B): The Severity of Poisoning After Exposure to Low to Moderate and High Doses. Ann Emerg Med 2020; 76:303-317. [PMID: 32507489 DOI: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2020.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVE We studied the severity of poisoning after exposure to low to moderate and high doses of 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B). METHODS Patients for whom the Dutch Poisons Information Centre was consulted for 2C-B exposure from 2016 to 2018 were included in a prospective cohort study. Data were collected through telephone interviews with the physician or patient. Patients were categorized according to the reported 2C-B dose: low to moderate (up to 20 mg), high (greater than 20 mg), or unknown. Presence of 2C-B was analyzed in leftover drug and biological samples with liquid/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The severity of poisoning was graded with the Poisoning Severity Score. RESULTS We included 59 patients, of whom 32 could be followed up. Low to moderate 2C-B doses were reported by 9 patients (28%), high doses by 17 (53%), and unknown doses by 6 (19%). Poisoning was moderate in the majority of patients in both the low- to moderate-dose and high-dose groups. Frequently reported symptoms included mydriasis, agitation or aggression, hallucinations, confusion, anxiety, hypertension, and tachycardia. The presence of 2C-B was confirmed in 5 patients in urine (n=3) or drug samples (n=4). CONCLUSION In this study, most 2C-B poisonings resulted in moderate toxicity even at high reported doses up to 192 mg. No severe cases were observed. The clinical course was usually short-lived (up to 24 hours) and typically involved hallucinations in addition to mild somatic effects.
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Pottie E, Cannaert A, Van Uytfanghe K, Stove CP. Setup of a Serotonin 2A Receptor (5-HT2AR) Bioassay: Demonstration of Its Applicability To Functionally Characterize Hallucinogenic New Psychoactive Substances and an Explanation Why 5-HT2AR Bioassays Are Not Suited for Universal Activity-Based Screening of Biofluids for New Psychoactive Substances. Anal Chem 2019; 91:15444-15452. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b03104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Eline Pottie
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Katleen Van Uytfanghe
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe P. Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Spoelder AS, Louwerens JKG, Krens SD, Jager N, LeCouffe NE, de Ruijter W, Brunt TM. Unexpected Serotonin Syndrome, Epileptic Seizures, and Cerebral Edema Following 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine Ingestion. J Forensic Sci 2019; 64:1950-1952. [PMID: 31643086 PMCID: PMC6900031 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
4‐bromo‐2,5‐dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C‐B) is a designer drug. In Europe, 2C‐B is easily obtained and used for recreational purposes. It is known for its stimulating effects similar to those of 3,4‐methylenedioxymethamphetamine, although in higher doses it has more hallucinogenic effects. Here, we report a case of 2C‐B ingestion, confirmed by liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry, in an 18‐year‐old man. The neurological consequences were severe, including the development of serotonin syndrome and severe brain edema. Supportive therapy resulted in a stable condition, although, after several months, the patient still suffered from severe neurological impairment due to the drug‐induced toxicity. This case showed that 2C‐B could not be identified with the drugs of abuse screening routinely used in Dutch hospitals. The use of 2C‐B carries many risks, with potentially profound neurological damage, that both consumers and healthcare physicians are unaware of.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoinette S Spoelder
- Department Intensive Care, Northwest Clinics (Noordwest Ziekenhuisgroep), Postbus 501, 1800 AM, Alkmaar, The Netherlands
| | - Jan K G Louwerens
- Department Intensive Care, Northwest Clinics (Noordwest Ziekenhuisgroep), Postbus 501, 1800 AM, Alkmaar, The Netherlands
| | - Stefanie D Krens
- Department Intensive Care, Northwest Clinics (Noordwest Ziekenhuisgroep), Postbus 501, 1800 AM, Alkmaar, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nynke Jager
- Department Intensive Care, Northwest Clinics (Noordwest Ziekenhuisgroep), Postbus 501, 1800 AM, Alkmaar, The Netherlands
| | - Natalie E LeCouffe
- Department Intensive Care, Northwest Clinics (Noordwest Ziekenhuisgroep), Postbus 501, 1800 AM, Alkmaar, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter de Ruijter
- Department Intensive Care, Northwest Clinics (Noordwest Ziekenhuisgroep), Postbus 501, 1800 AM, Alkmaar, The Netherlands
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- Amsterdam University Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Radboud Universiteit, Behavourial Science Institute, Montessorilaan 3, 6525 HR, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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8
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Wagmann L, Hempel N, Richter LHJ, Brandt SD, Stratford A, Meyer MR. Phenethylamine-derived new psychoactive substances 2C-E-FLY, 2C-EF-FLY, and 2C-T-7-FLY: Investigations on their metabolic fate including isoenzyme activities and their toxicological detectability in urine screenings. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1507-1521. [PMID: 31299701 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Psychoactive substances of the 2C-series are phenethylamine-based designer drugs that can induce psychostimulant and hallucinogenic effects. The so-called 2C-FLY series contains rigidified methoxy groups integrated in a 2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']difuran core. The aim of the presented work was to investigate the in vivo and in vitro metabolic fate including isoenzyme activities and toxicological detectability of the three new psychoactive substances (NPS) 2C-E-FLY, 2C-EF-FLY, and 2C-T-7-FLY to allow clinical and forensic toxicologists the identification of these novel compounds. Rat urine, after oral administration, and pooled human liver S9 fraction (pS9) incubations were analyzed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS). By performing activity screenings, the human isoenzymes involved were identified and toxicological detectability in rat urine investigated using standard urine screening approaches (SUSAs) based on gas chromatography (GC)-MS, LC-MSn , and LC-HRMS/MS. In total, 32 metabolites were tentatively identified. Main metabolic steps consisted of hydroxylation and N-acetylation. Phase I metabolic reactions were catalyzed by CYP2D6, 3A4, and FMO3 and N-acetylation by NAT1 and NAT2. Methoxyamine was used as a trapping agent for detection of the deaminated metabolite formed by MAO-A and B. Interindividual differences in the metabolism of the 2C-FLY drugs could be caused by polymorphisms of enzymes involved or drug-drug interactions. All three SUSAs were shown to be suitable to detect an intake of these NPS but common metabolites of 2C-E-FLY and 2C-EF-FLY have to be considered during interpretation of analytical findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Wagmann
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Nora Hempel
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Lilian H J Richter
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
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Kim JH, Kim S, Lee J, In S, Cho YY, Kang HC, Lee JY, Lee HS. In Vitro Metabolism of 25B-NBF, 2-(4-Bromo-2,5-Dimethoxyphenyl)- N-(2-Fluorobenzyl)ethanamine, in Human Hepatocytes Using Liquid Chromatography⁻Mass Spectrometry. Molecules 2019; 24:E818. [PMID: 30823561 PMCID: PMC6412758 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24040818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
25B-NBF, 2-(4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(2-fluorobenzyl)ethanamine, is a new psychoactive substance classified as a phenethylamine. It is a potent agonist of the 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor, but little is known about its metabolism and elimination properties since it was discovered. To aid 25B-NBF abuse screening, the metabolic characteristics of 25B-NBF were investigated in human hepatocytes and human cDNA-expressed cytochrome P450 (CYP) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes using liquid chromatography⁻high resolution mass spectrometry. At a hepatic extraction ratio of 0.80, 25B-NBF was extensively metabolized into 33 metabolites via hydroxylation, O-demethylation, bis-O-demethylation, N-debenzylation, glucuronidation, sulfation, and acetylation after incubation with pooled human hepatocytes. The metabolism of 25B-NBF was catalyzed by CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2J2, CYP3A4, and UGT2B7 enzymes. Based on these results, it is necessary to develop a bioanalytical method for the determination of not only 25B-NBF but also its metabolites in biological samples for the screening of 25B-NBF abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ju-Hyun Kim
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Korea.
| | - Sunjoo Kim
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
| | - Jaesin Lee
- National Forensic Service, Wonju 24460, Korea.
| | - Sangwhan In
- National Forensic Service, Wonju 24460, Korea.
| | - Yong-Yeon Cho
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
| | - Han Chang Kang
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
| | - Joo Young Lee
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
| | - Hye Suk Lee
- BK21 PLUS Team for Creative Leader Program for Pharmacomics-based Future Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Korea.
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10
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Halberstadt AL, Chatha M, Stratford A, Grill M, Brandt SD. Comparison of the behavioral responses induced by phenylalkylamine hallucinogens and their tetrahydrobenzodifuran ("FLY") and benzodifuran ("DragonFLY") analogs. Neuropharmacology 2019; 144:368-376. [PMID: 30385253 PMCID: PMC6863604 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, rigid analogs of phenylalkylamine hallucinogens have appeared as recreational drugs. Examples include 2-(8-bromo-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']difuran-4-yl)ethan-1-amine (2C-B-FLY) and 1-(8-bromobenzo[1,2-b;4,5-b']difuran-4-yl)-2-aminopropane (Bromo-DragonFLY, DOB-DFLY). Although some rigid compounds such as DOB-DFLY reportedly have higher potency than their non-rigid counterparts, it is not clear whether the same is true for 2C-B-FLY and other tetrahydrobenzodifurans. In the present study, the head twitch response (HTR), a 5-HT2A receptor-mediated behavior induced by serotonergic hallucinogens, was used to assess the effects of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB) and its α-desmethyl homologue 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (2C-B), as well as their benzodifuranyl and tetrahydrobenzodifuranyl analogs, in C57BL/6J mice. DOB (ED50 = 0.75 μmol/kg) and 2C-B (ED50 = 2.43 μmol/kg) induced the HTR. The benzodifurans DOB-DFLY (ED50 = 0.20 μmol/kg) and 2C-B-DFLY (ED50 = 1.07 μmol/kg) had significantly higher potency than DOB and 2C-B, respectively. The tetrahydrobenzodifurans DOB-FLY (ED50 = 0.67 μmol/kg) and 2C-B-FLY (ED50 = 1.79 μmol/kg), by contrast, were approximately equipotent with their non-rigid counterparts. Three novel tetrahydrobenzodifurans (2C-I-FLY, 2C-E-FLY and 2C-EF-FLY) were also active in the HTR assay but had relatively low potency. In summary, the in vivo potency of 2,5-dimethoxyphenylalkylamines is enhanced when the 2- and 5-methoxy groups are incorporated into aromatic furan rings, whereas potency is not altered if the methoxy groups are incorporated into dihydrofuran rings. The potency relationships for these compounds in mice closely parallel the human hallucinogenic data. The high potency of DOB-DFLY is probably linked to the presence of two structural features (a benzodifuran nucleus and an α-methyl group) known to enhance the potency of phenylalkylamine hallucinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam L Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA; Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr., San Diego, CA, 92161, USA.
| | - Muhammad Chatha
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
| | | | - Matthias Grill
- Lipomed AG, Fabrikmattenweg 4, CH-4144, Arlesheim, Switzerland
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
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Wagmann L, Brandt SD, Stratford A, Maurer HH, Meyer MR. Interactions of phenethylamine-derived psychoactive substances of the 2C-series with human monoamine oxidases. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:318-324. [PMID: 30188017 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Psychoactive substances of the 2C-series (2Cs) are phenethylamine-derived designer drugs that can induce psychostimulant and hallucinogenic effects. Chemically, the classic 2Cs contain two methoxy groups in positions 2 and 5 of the phenyl ring, whereas substances of the so-called FLY series contain rigidified methoxy groups integrated in a 2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']difuran core. One of the pharmacological features that has not been investigated in detail is the inhibition of monoamine oxidase (MAO). Inhibition of this enzyme can cause elevated monoamine levels that have been associated with adverse events such as agitation, nausea, vomiting, tachycardia, hypertension, or seizures. The aim of this study was to extend the knowledge surrounding the potential of MAO inhibition for 17 test drugs, which consisted of 12 2Cs (2C-B, 2C-D, 2C-E, 2C-H, 2C-I, 2C-N, 2C-P, 2C-T-2, 2C-T-7, 2C-T-21, bk-2C-B, and bk-2C-I) and five FLY analogs (2C-B-FLY, 2C-E-FLY, 2C-EF-FLY, 2C-I-FLY, and 2C-T-7-FLY). The extent of MAO inhibition was assessed using an established in vitro procedure based on heterologously expressed enzymes and analysis by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry. Thirteen test drugs showed inhibition potential for MAO-A and 11 showed inhibition of MAO-B. In cases where MAO-A IC50 values were determined, values ranged from 10 to 125 μM (7 drugs) and from 1.7 to 180 μM for MAO-B (9 drugs). In the absence of detailed clinical information on most test drugs, it is concluded that a pharmacological contribution of MAO inhibition cannot be excluded and that further studies are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Wagmann
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
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12
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Noble C, Holm NB, Mardal M, Linnet K. Bromo-dragonfly, a psychoactive benzodifuran, is resistant to hepatic metabolism and potently inhibits monoamine oxidase A. Toxicol Lett 2018; 295:397-407. [PMID: 30036687 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 07/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Bromo-dragonfly is a benzodifuran derivative known as one of the most potent 5-HT2A-receptor agonists within this chemical class, with long-lasting effects of up to 2-3 days. In addition to hallucinogenic effects, the drug is a potent vasoconstrictor, resulting in severe adverse effects, such as necrosis of the limbs. In some cases, intoxication has had fatal outcomes. Little is known about the metabolism of bromo-dragonfly. The aims of this study were to investigate the pharmacokinetics of bromo-dragonfly, determine the plasma protein binding, examine the human hepatic metabolism in vitro, and compare with those of its close analogue, 2C-B-fly. Additionally, we assayed the inhibition potency of both compounds on the monoamine oxidase (MAO) A- and B-mediated oxidative deamination of serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine, respectively. Liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry was used for metabolism studies in pooled human liver microsomes (HLM), pooled human liver cytosol (HLC) and recombinant enzymes. Inhibition studies of the deamination of 5-HT and dopamine were carried out using LC-MS/MS. Bromo-dragonfly was not metabolised in the tested in vitro systems. On the other hand, 2C-B-fly was metabolised in HLM by CYP2D6 and in HLC to some extent, with the main biotransformations being monohydroxylation and N-acetylation. Furthermore, MAO-A metabolised 2C-B-fly, producing the aldehyde metabolite, which was trapped in vitro with methoxyamine. Inhibition experiments revealed that bromo-dragonfly is a competitive inhibitor of MAO-A with a Ki of 0.352 μM. The IC50 value for bromo-dragonfly indicated that the inhibition of MAO-A may be clinically relevant. However, more data are needed to estimate its impact on the increase of 5-HT in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Noble
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Niels Bjerre Holm
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Marie Mardal
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristian Linnet
- Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Luethi D, Trachsel D, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. Monoamine receptor interaction profiles of 4-thio-substituted phenethylamines (2C-T drugs). Neuropharmacology 2017; 134:141-148. [PMID: 28720478 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 4-Thio-substituted phenethylamines (2C-T drugs) are potent psychedelics with poorly defined pharmacological properties. Because of their psychedelic effects, 2C-T drugs are sometimes sold as new psychoactive substances (NPSs). The aim of the present study was to characterize the monoamine receptor and transporter interaction profiles of a series of 2C-T drugs. METHODS We determined the binding affinities of 2C-T drugs at monoamine receptors and transporters in human cells that were transfected with the respective receptors or transporters. We also investigated the functional activation of serotonergic 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A (5-HT2A) and 5-HT2B receptors, activation of human trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), and inhibition of monoamine uptake transporters. RESULTS 2C-T drugs had high affinity for 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors (1-54 nM and 40-350 nM, respectively). With activation potencies of 1-53 nM and 44-370 nM, the drugs were potent 5-HT2A receptor and 5-HT2B receptor, respectively, partial agonists. An exception to this were the benzylthiophenethylamines, which did not potently activate the 5-HT2B receptor (EC50 > 3000 nM). Furthermore, the compounds bound to serotonergic 5-HT1A and adrenergic receptors. The compounds had high affinity for the rat TAAR1 (5-68 nM) and interacted with the mouse but not human TAAR1. The 2C-T drugs did not potently interact with monoamine transporters (Ki > 4000 nM). CONCLUSION The receptor binding profile of 2C-T drugs predicts psychedelic effects that are mediated by potent 5-HT2 receptor interactions. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Designer Drugs and Legal Highs.'
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino Luethi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Marius C Hoener
- Neuroscience Research, pRED, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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Lucchetti J, Marzo CM, Passoni A, Di Clemente A, Moro F, Bagnati R, Gobbi M, Cervo L. Brain Disposition of cis- para-Methyl-4-Methylaminorex ( cis-4,4'-DMAR) and Its Potential Metabolites after Acute and Chronic Treatment in Rats: Correlation with Central Behavioral Effects. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2017; 361:492-500. [PMID: 28404688 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.117.240788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
para-Methyl-4-methylaminorex (4,4'-DMAR) is a phenethylamine derivative with psychostimulant activity whose abuse has been associated with several deaths and a wide range of adverse effects. We recently validated a high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method to measure the compound's concentrations in plasma, and we applied it to describe the pharmacokinetic properties of 4,4'-DMAR after a single dose in rats. In this study, we investigated the brain disposition and metabolism of cis-4,4'-DMAR after intraperitoneal injection as well as its central behavioral effects. Locomotor activity increased after a single injection of 10 mg/kg, peaking at 2 hours and disappearing at 5 hours; in these conditions, brain absorption was very rapid, (tmax = 30-60 minutes) and large (brain-to-plasma ratio = 24); the half-life was approximately 50 minutes. After 14 daily doses, the compound's effect on locomotor activity was greater (approximately 20% compared with the effect after the first dose), but not for pharmacokinetic reasons. Using high-resolution mass spectrometry, we also identified four metabolites of cis-4,4'-DMAR in the plasma and brain of treated rats. Semiquantitative analysis indicated low brain permeability and very low brain concentrations, suggesting that these metabolites do not contribute to central behavioral effects; however, the metabolite originating from oxidation of the para-methyl group (M2) persisted in the plasma longer and at higher concentrations than the parent molecule and could be used to evaluate drug intake in human consumers. Finally, we describe the rewarding effect of cis-4,4'-DMAR in the conditioning place preference test, suggesting a high risk of addiction in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo Lucchetti
- Departments of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology (J.L., M.G.), Neuroscience (C.M.M., A.D.C., F.M., L.C.), and Environmental Health Science (A.P., R.B.), IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Claudio M Marzo
- Departments of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology (J.L., M.G.), Neuroscience (C.M.M., A.D.C., F.M., L.C.), and Environmental Health Science (A.P., R.B.), IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Alice Passoni
- Departments of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology (J.L., M.G.), Neuroscience (C.M.M., A.D.C., F.M., L.C.), and Environmental Health Science (A.P., R.B.), IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo Di Clemente
- Departments of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology (J.L., M.G.), Neuroscience (C.M.M., A.D.C., F.M., L.C.), and Environmental Health Science (A.P., R.B.), IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Moro
- Departments of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology (J.L., M.G.), Neuroscience (C.M.M., A.D.C., F.M., L.C.), and Environmental Health Science (A.P., R.B.), IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Renzo Bagnati
- Departments of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology (J.L., M.G.), Neuroscience (C.M.M., A.D.C., F.M., L.C.), and Environmental Health Science (A.P., R.B.), IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Gobbi
- Departments of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology (J.L., M.G.), Neuroscience (C.M.M., A.D.C., F.M., L.C.), and Environmental Health Science (A.P., R.B.), IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
| | - Luigi Cervo
- Departments of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology (J.L., M.G.), Neuroscience (C.M.M., A.D.C., F.M., L.C.), and Environmental Health Science (A.P., R.B.), IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy
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15
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Tyrkkö E, Andersson M, Kronstrand R. The Toxicology of New Psychoactive Substances: Synthetic Cathinones and Phenylethylamines. Ther Drug Monit 2016; 38:190-216. [PMID: 26587869 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New psychoactive substances (NPSs) are substitutes for classical drugs of abuse and there are now compounds available from all groups of classical drugs of abuse. During 2014, the number of synthetic cathinones increased dramatically and, together with phenylethylamines, they dominate the NPS markets in the European Union. In total, 31 cathinones and 9 phenylethylamines were encountered in 2014. The aim of this article was to summarize the existing knowledge about the basic pharmacology, metabolism, and human toxicology of relevant synthetic cathinones and phenylethylamines. Compared with existing reviews, we have also compiled the existing case reports from both fatal and nonfatal intoxications. METHODS We performed a comprehensive literature search using bibliographic databases PubMed and Web of Science, complemented with Google Scholar. The focus of the literature search was on original articles, case reports, and previously published review articles published in 2014 or earlier. RESULTS The rapid increase of NPSs is a growing concern and sets new challenges not only for societies in drug prevention and legislation but also in clinical and forensic toxicology. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that the pharmacodynamic profile of cathinones is similar to that of other psychomotor stimulants. Metabolism studies show that cathinones and phenylethylamines are extensively metabolized; however, the parent compound is usually detectable in human urine. In vitro studies have shown that many cathinones and phenylethylamines are metabolized by CYP2D6 enzymes. This indicates that these drugs may have many possible drug-drug interactions and that genetic polymorphism may influence their toxicity. However, the clinical and toxicological relevance of CYP2D6 in adverse effects of cathinones and phenylethylamines is questionable, because these compounds are metabolized by other enzymes as well. The toxidromes commonly encountered after ingestion of cathinones and phenylethylamines are mainly of sympathomimetic and hallucinogenic character with a risk of excited delirium and life-threatening cardiovascular effects. CONCLUSIONS The acute and chronic toxicity of many NPSs is unknown or very sparsely investigated. There is a need for evidence-based-treatment recommendations for acute intoxications and a demand for new strategies to analyze these compounds in clinical and forensic cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elli Tyrkkö
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
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16
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Stoller A, Dolder PC, Bodmer M, Hammann F, Rentsch KM, Exadaktylos AK, Liechti ME, Liakoni E. Mistaking 2C-P for 2C-B: What a Difference a Letter Makes. J Anal Toxicol 2016; 41:77-79. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkw108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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17
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Inhibition potential of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its metabolites on the in vitro monoamine oxidase (MAO)-catalyzed deamination of the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine. Toxicol Lett 2016; 243:48-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Revised: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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18
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Nugteren-van Lonkhuyzen JJ, van Riel AJHP, Brunt TM, Hondebrink L. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and toxicology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): 2C-B, 4-fluoroamphetamine and benzofurans. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 157:18-27. [PMID: 26530501 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, the number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) appearing on the illicit drug market has shown a marked increase. Although many users perceive the risk of using NPS as medium or low, these substances can pose a serious health risk and several NPS have been implicated in drug-related deaths. In Europe, frequently detected NPS are 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), 4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA) and benzofurans (5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB) or 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB)). However, little is known about the health risks of these specific NPS. METHODS In this paper, existing literature on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of 2C-B, 4-FA and benzofurans (5-APB/6-APB) was reviewed. RESULTS Our review showed that the clinical effects of 2C-B, 4-FA and benzofurans (5-APB/6-APB) are comparable with common illicit drugs like amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Therefore, NPS toxicity can be handled by existing treatment guidelines that are based on clinical effects instead of the specific drug involved. Even so, information on the health risks of these substances is limited to a number of case reports that are complicated by confounders such as analytical difficulties, mislabelling of drugs, concomitant exposures and interindividual differences. CONCLUSION To aid in early legislation, data on clinical effects from poisons centres and user fora should be combined with (in vitro) screening methods and collaboration on an (inter)national level is essential. As a result, potentially hazardous NPS could be detected more quickly, thereby protecting public health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Antoinette J H P van Riel
- National Poisons Information Centre, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring, Da Costakade 45, 3521 VS Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Laura Hondebrink
- National Poisons Information Centre, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Acute Effects of the Novel Psychoactive Drug 2C-B on Emotions. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:643878. [PMID: 26543863 PMCID: PMC4620274 DOI: 10.1155/2015/643878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Background. 2C-B (Nexus) is one of the most widespread novel psychoactive substances. There is limited information about its pharmacological properties, and few studies in humans concern its acute and chronic effects. 2C-B has been classified as a stimulant, hallucinogen, entactogen, and/or empathogen. Objectives. To evaluate the emotional, subjective, and cardiovascular effects of 2C-B. Methods. Twenty healthy recreational 2C-B users (12 women) self-administered a 20 mg dose of 2C-B. Evaluations included emotional (IAPS, FERT, and speech), subjective (visual analog scales, ARCI, VESSPA, HRS, and POMS questionnaires), and cardiovascular effects (blood pressure and heart rate). Results. Positive subjective effects predominated with a reduction of anger under the influence of 2C-B. It did, however, increase reactivity to negative emotional stimuli and decrease the ability to recognize expressions of happiness. Augmented emotionality in speech could be appreciated by others. 2C-B induced euphoria and well-being, changes in perceptions, and slight hallucinogenic states. Mild sympathetic actions were observed. Conclusions. The specific profile that 2C-B exerts on emotions suggests its classification as an entactogen with psychedelic properties.
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Caspar AT, Helfer AG, Michely JA, Auwärter V, Brandt SD, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Studies on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the new psychoactive designer drug 2-(4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-[(2-methoxyphenyl)methyl]ethanamine (25I-NBOMe) in human and rat urine using GC-MS, LC-MS(n), and LC-HR-MS/MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:6697-719. [PMID: 26108532 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8828-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
25I-NBOMe, a new psychoactive substance, is a potent 5-HT2A receptor agonist with strong hallucinogenic potential. Recently, it was involved in several fatal and non-fatal intoxication cases. The aim of the present work was to study its phase I and II metabolism and its detectability in urine screening approaches. After application of 25I-NBOMe to male Wistar rats, urine was collected over 24 h. The phase I and II metabolites were identified by LC-HR-MS/MS in urine after suitable workup. For the detectability studies, standard urine screening approaches (SUSA) by GC-MS, LC-MS(n), and LC-HR-MS/MS were applied to rat and also to authentic human urine samples submitted for toxicological analysis. Finally, an initial CYP activity screening was performed to identify CYP isoenzymes involved in the major metabolic steps. 25I-NBOMe was mainly metabolized by O-demethylation, O,O-bis-demethylation, hydroxylation, and combinations of these reactions as well as by glucuronidation and sulfation of the main phase I metabolites. All in all, 68 metabolites could be identified. Intake of 25I-NBOMe was detectable mainly via its metabolites by both LC-MS approaches, but not by the GC-MS SUSA. Initial CYP activity screening revealed the involvement of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 in hydroxylation and CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 in O-demethylation. The presented study demonstrated that 25I-NBOMe was extensively metabolized and could be detected only by the LC-MS screening approaches. Since CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 are involved in initial metabolic steps, drug-drug interactions might occur in certain constellations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Achim T Caspar
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Saar, Germany
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Bretaudeau Deguigne M, Férec S, Lelièvre B, Bruneau C, Diquet B, Harry P, Turcant A. Report of five cases of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-(n)-propylphenethylamine (2C-P) intoxication following recreational use. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Meyer MR, Robert A, Maurer HH. Toxicokinetics of novel psychoactive substances: Characterization of N-acetyltransferase (NAT) isoenzymes involved in the phase II metabolism of 2C designer drugs. Toxicol Lett 2014; 227:124-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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24
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Musselman ME, Hampton JP. "Not for human consumption": a review of emerging designer drugs. Pharmacotherapy 2014; 34:745-57. [PMID: 24710806 DOI: 10.1002/phar.1424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic, or "designer" drugs, are created by manipulating the chemical structures of other psychoactive drugs so that the resulting product is structurally similar but not identical to illegal psychoactive drugs. Originally developed in the 1960s as a way to evade existing drug laws, the use of designer drugs has increased dramatically over the past few years. These drugs are deceptively packaged as "research chemicals," "incense," "bath salts," or "plant food," among other names, with labels that may contain warnings such as "not for human consumption" or "not for sale to minors." The clinical effects of most new designer drugs can be described as either hallucinogenic, stimulant, or opioid-like. They may also have a combination of these effects due to designer side-chain substitutions. The easy accessibility and rapid emergence of new designer drugs have created challenges for health care providers when treating patients presenting with acute toxicity from these substances, many of which can produce significant and/or life-threatening adverse effects. Moreover, the health care provider has no way to verify the contents and/or potency of the agent ingested because it can vary between packages and distributors. Therefore, a thorough knowledge of the available designer drugs, common signs and symptoms of toxicity associated with these agents, and potential effective treatment modalities are essential to appropriately manage these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E Musselman
- Emergency Medicine/Critical Care, North Kansas City Hospital, Kansas City, Missouri
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Bosak A, LoVecchio F, Levine M. Recurrent seizures and serotonin syndrome following "2C-I" ingestion. J Med Toxicol 2013; 9:196-8. [PMID: 23378129 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-013-0287-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The phenethylamines, including 2, 5 dimethoxy-4-iodophenethylamine, commonly referred to as 2C-I, have recently emerged as a new class of designer drugs. Cases of toxicity from these drugs are not well described in the literature. This case report describes a 19 year-old male who insufflated 2C-I. Following the ingestion, the patient developed recurrent seizures, and was taken to the emergency department, where he was noted to be hyperadrenergic and had recurrent seizures. The patient was diagnosed with serotonin syndrome and experienced prolonged respiratory failure, although he ultimately made a full recovery. Comprehensive drug testing revealed the presence of 2C-I. The pharmacologic properties of 2C-I are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Bosak
- Department of Medical Toxicology, Banner Good Samaritan Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, USA
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Abstract
New groups of synthetic "designer drugs" have increased in popularity over the past several years. These products mimic the euphoric effects of other well-known illicit drugs but are advertised as "legal" highs and are sold over the internet, at raves and night clubs, and in head shops. The 2C series drugs are ring-substituted phenethylamines that belong to a group of designer agents similar in structure to 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy). Understanding the pharmacology and toxicology of these agents is essential in order to provide the best medical care for these patients. This review focuses on the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, clinical effects, and treatment of 2C drug intoxication based on available published literature. Multiple names under which 2C drugs are sold were identified and tabulated. Common features identified in patients intoxicated with 2Cs included hallucinations, agitation, aggression, violence, dysphoria, hypertension, tachycardia, seizures, and hyperthermia. Patients may exhibit sympathomimetic symptoms or symptoms consistent with serotonin toxicity, but an excited delirium presentation seems to be consistent amongst deaths attributed to 2C drugs; at least five deaths have been reported in the literature in patients intoxicated with 2C drugs. 2C drugs are a group of designer intoxicants, many of which are marketed as legal, but may carry risks that consumers are unaware of. These drugs may be characterized by either serotonergic toxicity or a sympathomimetic toxidrome, but a presentation consistent with excited delirium is consistent amongst the reported 2C-related deaths. Treatment of 2C intoxication is primarily supportive, but immediate action is required in the context of excited delirium, hyperthermia, and seizure activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Be Vang Dean
- />Clinical Toxicology Service and Department of Emergency Medicine, Regions Hospital, 640 Jackson St, St. Paul, MN 55101 USA
| | - Samuel J. Stellpflug
- />Clinical Toxicology Service and Department of Emergency Medicine, Regions Hospital, 640 Jackson St, St. Paul, MN 55101 USA
| | - Aaron M. Burnett
- />Regions Emergency Medical Services and Department of Emergency Medicine, Regions Hospital, St. Paul, MN USA
| | - Kristin M. Engebretsen
- />Clinical Toxicology Service and Department of Emergency Medicine, Regions Hospital, 640 Jackson St, St. Paul, MN 55101 USA
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Kanamori T, Nagasawa K, Kuwayama K, Tsujikawa K, Iwata YT, Inoue H. Analysis of 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine abuser's urine: identification and quantitation of urinary metabolites. J Forensic Sci 2012; 58:279-87. [PMID: 23066942 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02289.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2011] [Revised: 11/06/2011] [Accepted: 11/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The metabolites of 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), a psychoactive drug with hallucinogenic activity, were investigated in a urine sample from a user of 2C-B. The urine sample was deconjugated enzymatically and the metabolites were recovered by liquid-liquid extraction. The extract was analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry after derivatization, and the results were used to identify and quantitate the metabolites. 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylacetic acid was the most abundant metabolite of 2C-B in human urine and accounted for 73% of the total amount of detected metabolites, followed by 4-bromo-2-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenylacetic acid (13%) and 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylethyl alcohol (4.5%). According to the literature, the main metabolites of 2C-B in rat urine are N-(4-bromo-2-methoxy-5-hydroxyphenylethyl)acetamide and N-(4-bromo-2-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenylethyl)acetamide. However, these metabolites accounted for only a small proportion of the total amount of detected metabolites in human urine, which indicates that there are significant species-specific differences in the metabolism of 2C-B. 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylacetic acid, which was the most abundant metabolite in human urine, is thought to be generated by deamination of 2C-B by monoamine oxidase (MAO) followed by oxidation by aldehyde dehydrogenase. Our results suggest that MAO plays a crucial role in the metabolism of 2C-B in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuyuki Kanamori
- National Research Institute of Police Science, 6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa City, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan.
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Identification of N-ethyl-α-ethylphenethylamine in crystalline powder seized for suspected drug trafficking: a research chemical or a new designer drug? Forensic Toxicol 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-012-0158-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Zuba D, Sekuła K, Buczek A. Identification and characterization of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-nitro-β-phenethylamine (2C-N) – A new member of 2C-series of designer drug. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 222:298-305. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2012] [Revised: 06/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Zuba D, Sekuła K. Identification and characterization of 2,5-dimethoxy-3,4-dimethyl-β-phenethylamine (2C-G)--a new designer drug. Drug Test Anal 2012; 5:549-59. [PMID: 22927304 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
This study presents and discusses the mass spectrometric, infrared spectroscopic and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic data of 2,5-dimethoxy-3,4-dimethyl-β-phenethylamine (2C-G), a new designer drug. A powder sample containing 2C-G was seized in Poland in 2011. The paper focuses on a comparison of the analytical features of 2C-G and other members of the 2C-series, in order to assess the possibility of unequivocal identification. The occurrence of intense peak at m/z = 178 and different intensities of the ions at m/z = 165 and 180 in the gas chromatography-electron impact-mass spectrometry (GC-EI/MS) spectrum of 2C-G made it possible to distinguish it from 2C-E. Differences in relative intensities of the ions at m/z = 192, 179 and 177 were observed for GC-EI/MS spectra of TFAA derivatives of 2C-G and 2C-E. An identical set of ions was recorded for these substances using the liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization/quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-ESI/QTOFMS) method in both MS and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) mode, but the distinction was possible based on differences in the ion intensities at m/z = 193.1223 and 178.0988. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum of 2C-G was significantly different from other members of the 2C-series, with a characteristic doublets at 993-1014 cm(-1) and 1099-1124 cm(-1) , and the ratio of bands at higher wavenumbers. Final elucidation of the structure of 2C-G was carried out by (1) H and (13) C NMR spectroscopy. The study indicated that the marketing of analogues of controlled substances poses a real analytical challenge for forensic laboratories, and the application of sophisticated methods is often required for unequivocal identification of a new substance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dariusz Zuba
- Institute of Forensic Research, Department of Forensic Toxicology, Krakow, Poland.
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Peters FT, Meyer MR. In vitro approaches to studying the metabolism of new psychoactive compounds. Drug Test Anal 2011; 3:483-95. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2011] [Accepted: 04/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Abstract
Since the late 1990s the illicit drug market has undergone considerable change: along with the traditional drugs of abuse that still dominate, more than 100 psychotropic substances designed to bypass controlled substances legislation have appeared and led to intoxications and fatalities. Starting from the huge class of phenylalkylamines, containing many subgroups, the spectrum of structures has grown from tryptamines, piperazines, phenylcyclohexyl derivates and pyrrolidinophenones to synthetic cannabinoids and the first synthetic cocaine. Due to the small prevalence and high number of unknown substances, the detection of new designer drugs is a challenge for clinical and forensic toxicologists. Standard screening procedures might fail because a recently discovered or yet unknown substance has not been incorporated in the library used. Nevertheless, many metabolism studies, case reports, screening methods and substance-profiling papers concentrating on single compounds have been published. This review provides an overview of the developed bioanalytical and analytical methods, the matrices used, sample-preparation procedures, concentration of analytes in case of intoxication and also gives a résumé of immunoassay experiences. Additionally, six screening methods for biological matrices with a larger spectrum of analytes are described in more detail.
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Abstract
In recent years, besides the classic designer drugs of the amphetamine type, a series of new drug classes appeared on the illicit drugs market. The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, metabolism, and toxicokinetics is discussed of 2,5-dimethoxy amphetamines, 2,5-dimethoxy phenethylamines, beta-keto-amphetamines, phencyclidine derivatives as well as of herbal drugs, ie, Kratom. They have gained popularity and notoriety as rave drugs. The metabolic pathways, the involvement of cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in the main pathways, and their roles in hepatic clearance are also summarized.
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Kamel A, Obach RS, Tseng E, Sawant A. Metabolism, pharmacokinetics and excretion of the GABA(A) receptor partial agonist [(14)C]CP-409,092 in rats. Xenobiotica 2010; 40:400-14. [PMID: 20334492 DOI: 10.3109/00498251003710269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism and excretion of a GABA(A) partial agonist developed for the treatment of anxiety, CP-409,092; 4-oxo-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-indole-3-carboxylic acid (4-methylaminomethyl-phenyl)-amide, were studied in rats following intravenous and oral administration of a single doses of [(14)C]CP-409,092. The pharmacokinetics of CP-409,092 following single intravenous and oral doses of 4 and 15 mg kg(-1), respectively, were characterized by high clearance of 169 + or - 18 ml min(-1) kg(-1), a volume of distribution of 8.99 + or - 1.46 l kg(-1), and an oral bioavailability of 2.9% + or - 3%. Following oral administration of 100 mg kg(-1) [(14)C]CP-409,092, the total recovery was 89.1% + or - 3.2% for male rats and 89.3% + or - 0.58% for female rats. Approximately 87% of the radioactivity recovered in urine and faeces were excreted in the first 48 h. A substantial portion of the radioactivity was measured in the faeces as unchanged drug, suggesting poor absorption and/or biliary excretion. There were no significant gender-related quantitative/qualitative differences in the excretion of metabolites in urine or faeces. The major metabolic pathways of CP-409,092 were hydroxylation(s) at the oxo-tetrahydro-indole moiety and oxidative deamination to form an aldehyde intermediate and subsequent oxidation to form the benzoic acid. The minor metabolic pathways included N-demethylation and subsequent N-acetylation and oxidation. The present work demonstrates that oxidative deamination at the benzylic amine of CP-409,092 and subsequent oxidation to form the acid metabolite seem to play an important role in the metabolism of the drug, and they contribute to its oral clearance and low exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kamel
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton/New London Laboratories, Pfizer, Inc, Groton, CT, USA.
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Peng L, Zhang G, Zhang D, Wang Y, Zhu D. A direct continuous fluorometric turn-on assay for monoamine oxidase B and its inhibitor-screening based on the abnormal fluorescent behavior of silole. Analyst 2010; 135:1779-84. [DOI: 10.1039/c0an00168f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Wu C, Jiang XL, Shen HW, Yu AM. Effects of CYP2D6 status on harmaline metabolism, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and a pharmacogenetics-based pharmacokinetic model. Biochem Pharmacol 2009; 78:617-24. [PMID: 19445902 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2009.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2009] [Revised: 05/06/2009] [Accepted: 05/07/2009] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Harmaline is a beta-carboline alkaloid showing neuroprotective and neurotoxic properties. Our recent studies have revealed an important role for cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) in harmaline O-demethylation. This study, therefore, aimed to delineate the effects of CYP2D6 phenotype/genotype on harmaline metabolism, pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD), and to develop a pharmacogenetics mechanism-based compartmental PK model. In vitro kinetic studies on metabolite formation in human CYP2D6 extensive metabolizer (EM) and poor metabolizer (PM) hepatocytes indicated that harmaline O-demethylase activity (V(max)/K(m)) was about 9-fold higher in EM hepatocytes. Substrate depletion showed mono-exponential decay trait, and estimated in vitro harmaline clearance (CL(int), microL/min/10(6)cells) was significantly lower in PM hepatocytes (28.5) than EM hepatocytes (71.1). In vivo studies in CYP2D6-humanized and wild-type mouse models showed that wild-type mice were subjected to higher and longer exposure to harmaline (5 and 15mg/kg; i.v. and i.p.), and more severe hypothermic responses. The PK/PD data were nicely described by our pharmacogenetics-based PK model involving the clearance of drug by CYP2D6 (CL(CYP2D6)) and other mechanisms (CL(other)), and an indirect response PD model, respectively. Wild-type mice were also more sensitive to harmaline in marble-burying tests, as manifested by significantly lower ED(50) and steeper Hill slope. These findings suggest that distinct CYP2D6 status may cause considerable variations in harmaline metabolism, PK and PD. In addition, the pharmacogenetics-based PK model may be extended to define PK difference caused by other polymorphic drug-metabolizing enzyme in different populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Wu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14260-1200, USA
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Liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure ionization electrospray mass spectrometry determination of “hallucinogenic designer drugs” in urine of consumers. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2008; 47:335-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2007.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2007] [Revised: 12/20/2007] [Accepted: 12/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Ewald AH, Puetz M, Maurer HH. Designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine (DOM, STP): involvement of the cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in formation of its main metabolite and detection of the latter in rat urine as proof of a drug intake using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2008; 862:252-6. [PMID: 18155651 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.11.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2007] [Revised: 11/27/2007] [Accepted: 11/29/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine (DOM, STP) is known to be extensively metabolized in various species. The current study showed that cytochrome P450 2D6 was the only isoenzyme involved in formation of the main metabolite hydroxy DOM. In addition, the authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC-MS was suitable to prove an intake of a common drug users' dose of DOM by detection of hydroxy DOM in rat urine. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of DOM in human urine. However, DOM and/or other metabolites such as deamino-oxo-hydroxy DOM might be the target analyte in urine of CYP2D6 poor metabolizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas H Ewald
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Strasse 1, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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