Hemin–H2O2–NO2− induced protein oxidation and tyrosine nitration are different from those of SIN-1: A study on glutamate dehydrogenase nitrative/oxidative modification

Protein nitration induced by Hemin/NO: A complementary mechanism through the catalytic functions of hemin and NO-scavenging

Hemin and heme-peroxidases have been considered essential catalysts for the nitrite/hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-mediated protein nitration in vitro, understood as one of the main pathways for protein modification in biological systems. However, the role of nitric oxide (^●NO) in the heme/hemin-induced protein nitration has not been studied in-depth. This is despite its reductive nitrosylating effects following binding to hemin and the possible involvement of the reactive nitrogen species in the nitration of various functional proteins. Here, the ^●NO-binding affinity of hemin has been studied along with the influence of ^●NO on the internalization of hemin into MDA-MB-231 cells and the accompanying changes in the profile of intracellular nitrated proteins. Moreover, to further understand the mechanism involved, bovine serum albumin (BSA) nitration was studied after treatment with hemin and ^●NO, with an investigation of the effects of pH of the reaction medium, generation of H₂O₂, and the oxidation of the tyrosine residues as the primary sites for the nitration. We demonstrated that hemin nitrosylation enhanced its cellular uptake and induced the one-electron oxidation and nitration of different intracellular proteins along with its ^●NO-scavenging efficiency. Moreover, the hemin/NO-mediated BSA nitration was proved to be dependent on the concentration of ^●NO and the pH of the reaction medium, with a vital role being played by the scavenging effects of protein for the free hemin molecules. Collectively, our results reaffirm the involvement of hemin and ^●NO in the nitration mechanism, where the nitrosylation products can induce protein nitration while promoting the effects of the components of the nitrite/H₂O₂-mediated pathway.

NPY binds with heme to form a NPY–heme complex: enhancing peroxidase activity in free heme and promoting NPY nitration and inactivation

NPY binding with heme enhances the peroxidase activity of free heme, resulting in the important tyrosine nitration, which will attenuate its bioactivity.

Multiple Forms of Glutamate Dehydrogenase in Animals: Structural Determinants and Physiological Implications

Glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) of animal cells is usually considered to be a mitochondrial enzyme. However, this enzyme has recently been reported to be also present in nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes. These extramitochondrial localizations are associated with moonlighting functions of GDH, which include acting as a serine protease or an ATP-dependent tubulin-binding protein. Here, we review the published data on kinetics and localization of multiple forms of animal GDH taking into account the splice variants, post-translational modifications and GDH isoenzymes, found in humans and apes. The kinetic properties of human GLUD1 and GLUD2 isoenzymes are shown to be similar to those published for GDH1 and GDH2 from bovine brain. Increased functional diversity and specific regulation of GDH isoforms due to alternative splicing and post-translational modifications are also considered. In particular, these structural differences may affect the well-known regulation of GDH by nucleotides which is related to recent identification of thiamine derivatives as novel GDH modulators. The thiamine-dependent regulation of GDH is in good agreement with the fact that the non-coenzyme forms of thiamine, i.e., thiamine triphosphate and its adenylated form are generated in response to amino acid and carbon starvation.

α -Ketoglutarate accumulation is not dependent on isocitrate dehydrogenase activity during tellurite detoxification in Escherichia coli

Tellurite is toxic to most microorganisms because of its ability to generate oxidative stress. However, the way in which tellurite interferes with cellular processes is not fully understood to date. In this line, it was previously shown that tellurite-exposed cells displayed reduced activity of the α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (α-KGDH), which resulted in α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) accumulation. In this work, we assessed if α-KG accumulation in tellurite-exposed E. coli could also result from increased isocitrate dehydrogenase (ICDH) and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) activities, both enzymes involved in α-KG synthesis. Unexpectedly both activities were found to decrease in the presence of the toxicant, an observation that seems to result from the decreased transcription of icdA and gdhA genes (encoding ICDH and GDH, resp.). Accordingly, isocitrate levels were found to increase in tellurite-exposed E. coli. In the presence of the toxicant, cells lacking icdA or gdhA exhibited decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and higher tellurite sensitivity as compared to the wild type strain. Finally, a novel branch activity of ICDH as tellurite reductase is presented.

Tyrosine residues play an important role in heme detoxification by serum albumin

BACKGROUND

Serum albumin binds avidly to heme to form heme-serum albumin complex, also called methemalbumin, and this binding is thought to protect against the potentially toxic effects of heme. However, the mechanism of detoxification has not been fully elucidated.

METHODS

SDS-PAGE and Western blot were used to determine the efficiency of methemalbumin on catalyzing protein carbonylation and nitration. HPLC was used to test the formation of heme to protein cross-linked methemalbumin.

RESULTS

The peroxidase activity of heme increased upon human serum albumin (HSA) binding. Methemalbumin showed higher efficiency in catalyzing tyrosine oxidation than free heme in the presence of H2O2. Methemalbumin catalyzed self-nitration and significantly promoted the nitration of tyrosine in coexistent protein, but decreased the carbonylation of coexistent protein compared with heme. The heme to protein cross-linked form of methemalbumin suggested that HSA trapped the free radical accompanied by the formation of ferryl heme. When tyrosine residues in HSA were modified by iodination, HSA lost of protection effect on protein carbonylation. The low concentration of glutathione could effectively inhibit tyrosine nitration, but had no effect on protein carbonylation.

CONCLUSION

HSA protects against the toxic effect of heme by transferring the free radical to tyrosine residues in HSA, therefore protecting surrounding proteins from irreversible oxidation, rather than by direct inhibiting the peroxidase activity. The increased tyrosine radicals can be reduced by endogenic antioxidants such as GSH.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

This investigation indicated the important role of tyrosine residues in heme detoxification by HSA and suggested a possible novel mechanism.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition curbs tyrosine nitration of mitochondrial proteins in the renal cortex during the early stage of diabetes mellitus in rats

Experiments were performed to evaluate the hypothesis that ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibition (enalapril) suppresses 3-NT (3-nitrotyrosine) production in the renal cortex during the early stage of Type 1 DM (diabetes mellitus) in the rat. Enalapril was administered chronically for 2 weeks to subsets of STZ (streptozotocin)-induced DM and vehicle-treated sham rats. O₂⁻ (superoxide anion) and NO_x (nitrate+nitrite) levels were measured in the media bathing renal cortical slices after 90 min incubation in vitro. SOD (superoxide dismutase) activity and 3-NT content were measured in the renal cortex homogenate. Renal cortical nitrated protein was identified by proteomic analysis. Renal cortical production of O₂⁻ and 3-NT was increased in DM rats; however, enalapril suppressed these changes. DM rats also exhibited elevated renal cortical NO_x production and SOD activity, and these changes were magnified by enalapril treatment. 2-DE (two-dimensional gel electrophoresis)-based Western blotting revealed more than 20 spots with positive 3-NT immunoreactivity in the renal cortex of DM rats. Enalapril treatment blunted the DM-induced increase in tyrosine nitration of three proteins ACO2, GDH1 and MMSDH (aconitase 2, glutamate dehydrogenase 1 and methylmalonate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase), each of which resides in mitochondria. These data are consistent with enalapril preventing DM-induced tyrosine nitration of mitochondrial proteins by a mechanism involving suppression of oxidant production and enhancement of antioxidant capacity, including SOD activation.

Iron increases liver injury through oxidative/nitrative stress in diabetic rats: Involvement of nitrotyrosination of glucokinase

Excessive tissue iron levels are associated with the increase of oxidative/nitrative stress which contributes to tissue damage that may elevate the risk of diabetes. Therefore, we investigated the effects of iron on diabetes-associated liver injury and whether iron-related tyrosine nitration participated in this process. Rats were randomly divided into four groups: control, iron overload (300 mg/kg iron dextran, i.p.), diabetic (35 mg/kg of streptozotocin i.p. after administration of a high-fat diet) and diabetic simultaneously treated with iron. Iron supplement markedly increased diabetes-mediated liver damage and hepatic dysfunction by increasing liver/body weight ratio, serum levels of aspartate and alanine aminotransferase, and histological examination, which were correlated with elevated levels of lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyls and tyrosine nitration, oxidative metabolism of nitric oxide, and reduced antioxidant capacity. Consequently, the extent of oxidized/nitrated glucokinase was markedly increased in the iron-treated diabetic rats that contribute to a decrease in its expression and activity. Further studies revealed a significant contribution of iron-induced specific glucokinase nitration sites to its inactivation. In conclusion, iron facilitates diabetes-mediated elevation of oxidative/nitrative stress, simultaneously impairs liver GK, and can be a link between enzymatic changes and hepatic dysfunction. These findings may provide new insight on the role of iron in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus.

The good and bad effects of cysteine S-nitrosylation and tyrosine nitration upon insulin exocytosis: a balancing act

As understanding of the mechanisms driving and regulating insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells grows, there is increasing and compelling evidence that nitric oxide (•NO) and other closely-related reactive nitrogen species (RNS) play important roles in this exocytic process. •NO and associated RNS, in particular peroxynitrite, possess the capability to effect signals across both intracellular and extracellular compartments in rapid fashion, affording extraordinary signaling potential. It is well established that nitric oxide signals through activation of guanylate cyclase-mediated production of cyclic GMP. The intricate intracellular redox environment, however, lends credence to the possibility that •NO and peroxynitrite could interact with a wider variety of biological targets, with two leading mechanisms involving 1) Snitrosylation of cysteine, and 2) nitration of tyrosine residues comprised within a variety of proteins. Efforts aimed at delineating the specific roles of •NO and peroxynitrite in regulated insulin secretion indicate that a highly-complex and nuanced system exists, with evidence that •NO and peroxynitrite can contribute in both positive and negative regulatory ways in beta cells. Furthermore, the ultimate biochemical outcome within beta cells, whether to compensate and recover from a given stress, or not, is likely a summation of contributory signals and redox status. Such seeming regulatory dichotomy provides ample opportunity for these mechanisms to serve both physiological and pathophysiologic roles in onset and progression of diabetes. This review focuses attention upon recent accumulating evidence pointing to roles for nitric oxide induced post-translational modifications in the normal regulation as well as the dysfunction of beta cell insulin exocytosis.

p53 promotes cellular survival in a context-dependent manner by directly inducing the expression of haeme-oxygenase-1

A variety of cellular insults activate the tumour suppressor p53, leading generally to cell-cycle arrest or apoptosis. However, it is not inconceivable that cellular protective mechanisms may be required to keep cells alive while cell-fate decisions are made. In this respect, p53 has been suggested to perform functions that allow cells to survive, by halting of the cell-cycle, and thus preventing immediate cell death. Nonetheless, the existence of direct pro-survival p53 target genes regulating cellular survival is lacking. We show here evidence for p53-dependent cellular survival in a context-dependent manner. Both mouse and human cells lacking p53 are hypersensitive to hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2))-induced cell death compared with their isogenic wild-type counterparts. By contrast, p53(-/-) cells are expectedly resistant to cell death upon exposure to DNA-damaging agents such as cisplatin (CDDP) and etoposide. Although p53 and its classical targets such as p21 and Mdm2 are activated by both H(2)O(2) and CDDP, we found that the expression of haeme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1)-an antioxidant and antiapoptotic protein-was directly induced only upon H(2)O(2) treatment in a p53-dependent manner. Consistently, p53, but not its homologue p73, activated HO-1 expression and was bound to the HO-1 promoter specifically only upon H(2)O(2) treatment. Moreover, silencing HO-1 expression enhanced cell death upon H(2)O(2) treatment only in p53-proficient cells. Finally, H(2)O(2)-mediated cell death was rescued significantly in p53-deficient cells by antioxidant treatment, as well as by bilirubin, a by-product of HO-1 metabolism. Taken together, these data demonstrate a direct role for p53 in promoting cellular survival in a context-specific manner through the activation of a direct transcriptional target, HO-1.

Inhibition of Arabidopsis O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase A1 by tyrosine nitration

The last step of sulfur assimilation is catalyzed by O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase (OASTL) enzymes. OASTLs are encoded by a multigene family in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Cytosolic OASA1 enzyme is the main source of OASTL activity and thus crucial for cysteine homeostasis. We found that nitrating conditions after exposure to peroxynitrite strongly inhibited OASTL activity. Among OASTLs, OASA1 was markedly sensitive to nitration as demonstrated by the comparative analysis of OASTL activity in nitrated crude protein extracts from wild type and different oastl mutants. Furthermore, nitration assays on purified recombinant OASA1 protein led to 90% reduction of the activity due to inhibition of the enzyme, as no degradation of the protein occurred under these conditions. The reduced activity was due to nitration of the protein because selective scavenging of peroxynitrite with epicatechin impaired OASA1 nitration and the concomitant inhibition of OASTL activity. Inhibition of OASA1 activity upon nitration correlated with the identification of a modified OASA1 protein containing 3-nitroTyr(302) residue. The essential role of the Tyr(302) residue for the catalytic activity was further demonstrated by the loss of OASTL activity of a Y302A-mutated version of OASA1. Inhibition caused by Tyr(302) nitration on OASA1 activity seems to be due to a drastically reduced O-acetylserine substrate binding to the nitrated protein, and also to reduced stabilization of the pyridoxal-5'-phosphate cofactor through hydrogen bonds. This is the first report identifying a Tyr nitration site of a plant protein with functional effect and the first post-translational modification identified in OASA1 enzyme.

Protein tyrosine nitration in cellular signal transduction pathways

How specificity and reversibility in tyrosine nitration are defined biologically in cellular systems is poorly understood. As more investigations identify proteins involved in cell regulatory pathways in which only a small fraction of that protein pool is modified by nitration to affect cell function, the mechanisms of biological specificity and reversal should come into focus. In this review experimental evidence has been summarized to suggest that tyrosine nitration is a highly selective modification and under certain physiological conditions fulfills the criteria of a physiologically relevant signal. It can be specific, reversible, occurs on a physiological time scale, and, depending on a target, can result in either activation or inhibition.

Biomarkers for drug-induced liver injury

Of the estimated 10,000 documented human drugs, more than 1000 have been associated with drug-induced liver injury (DILI), although causality has not always been established clearly. Numerous biomarkers for DILI have been explored, but less than ten are adopted or qualified as valid by the US FDA. The biomarkers for DILI are individual or a panel of proteins, nucleic acids or metabolites from various sources, such as the liver, blood and urine. While most DILI biomarkers are drug independent, some possibly 'drug-specific' DILIs have been explored, but specificity and sensitivity of both types need to be improved for the diagnosis of DILI during drug development and in clinical practice. Novel approaches for DILI biomarkers have been actively investigated recently, but produced mainly animal-based biomarkers, which are possibly useful for drug development, but are not suitable or have not been validated for clinical applications. This review summarizes the current practice and future perspectives for DILI biomarkers.