Application of pulsed electric fields for the biocompatible extraction of proteins from the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis

Recent trends in edible algae functional proteins: Production, bio-functional properties, and sustainable food packaging applications

In recent years, there has been a notable surge in the development and adoption of edible algae protein-based sustainable food packaging, which presents a promising alternative to traditional materials due to its biodegradability, renewability, and minimal environmental impact. Hence, this review aims to emphasize the sources, cultivation, and downstream potential of algal protein and protein complexes. Moreover, it comprehensively examines the advancements in utilizing protein complexes for smart and active packaging applications, while also addressing the challenges that must be overcome for the widespread commercial adoption of algal proteins to meet industry 4.0. The review revealed that the diversity of algae species and their sustainable cultivation methods offers a promising alternative to traditional protein sources. Being vegan source with higher photosynthetic conversion efficiency and reduced growth cycle has permitted the proposition of algae as proteins of the future. The unique combination of techno-functional combined with bio-functional properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial response have captured the sustainable groups to invest considerable research and promote the innovations in algal proteins. Food packaging research has increasingly benefited by the excellent gas barrier property and superior mechanical strength of algal proteins either stand alone or in synergy with other biodegradable polymers. Advanced packaging functionality such as freshness monitoring and active preservation techniques has been explored and needs considerable characterization for commercial advancement. Overall, while algal proteins show promising downstream potential in various industries aligned with Industry 4.0 principles, their broader adoption hinges on overcoming these barriers through continued innovation and strategic development.

Methods to protein and peptide extraction from microalgae: a systematic review

Currently, there is a demand for protein sources that do not use soil management or animal breeding. Among these sources we highlight the microorganisms, such cyanobacteria and microalgae, which have a simple growth using light, CO2, water and some mineral salts to generate high protein production. The extraction of these proteins depends on the method used. The most used methods for extracting bio-functional proteins are mechanical, chemical and enzymatic. The aim of this work is to analyze the protein extraction methods in microalgae using Scielo, ScienceDirect and NCBI (PubMed) electronic databases that made it possible to select original studies published in the last five years (2018-2023). A total of 2707 articles, 25 of which were selected for further analysis and subjected to risk of bias assessment. The genera Chlorella, Scenedesmus and Nannochloropsis were the most studied due to their high protein content. Mechanical methods and chemical hydrolysis are the most used methods, achieving an extraction yield of 46.0 % and 64.0 %, respectively. The best extraction results are obtained with a combination of methods, reaching up to 80.0 % yield. However, some aspects need to be observed to choose an ideal protein extraction method.

Pulsed Electric Fields Effects on Proteins: Extraction, Structural Modification, and Enhancing Enzymatic Activity

Pulsed electric field (PEF) is an innovative physical method for food processing characterized by low energy consumption and short processing time. This technology represents a sustainable procedure to extend food shelf-life, enhance mass transfer, or modify food structure. The main mechanism of action of PEF for food processing is the increment of the permeability of the cell membranes by electroporation. However, it has also been shown that PEF may modify the technological and functional properties of proteins. Generating a high-intensity electric field necessitates the flow of an electric current that may have side effects such as electrochemical reactions and temperature increments due to the Joule effect that may affect food components such as proteins. This article presents a critical review of the knowledge on the extraction of proteins assisted by PEF and the impact of these treatments on protein composition, structure, and functionality. The required research for understanding what happens to a protein when it is under the action of a high-intensity electric field and to know if the mechanism of action of PEF on proteins is different from thermal or electrochemical effects is underlying.

Astaxanthin from microalgae: A review on structure, biosynthesis, production strategies and application

Astaxanthin is a red-colored secondary metabolite with excellent antioxidant properties, typically finds application as foods, feed, cosmetics, nutraceuticals, and medications. Astaxanthin is usually produced synthetically using chemicals and costs less as compared to the natural astaxanthin obtained from fish, shrimps, and microorganisms. Over the decades, astaxanthin has been naturally synthesized from Haematococcus pluvialis in commercial scales and remains exceptional, attributed to its higher bioactive properties as compared to synthetic astaxanthin. However, the production cost of algal astaxanthin is still high due to several bottlenecks prevailing in the upstream and downstream processes. To that end, the present study intends to review the recent trends and advancements in astaxanthin production from microalgae. The structure of astaxanthin, sources, production strategies of microalgal astaxanthin, and factors influencing the synthesis of microalgal astaxanthin were discussed while detailing the pathway involved in astaxanthin biosynthesis. The study also discusses the relevant downstream process used in commercial scales and details the applications of astaxanthin in various health related issues.

Cell destruction level and metabolites green-extraction of Tetraselmis suecica by low and intermediate frequency ultrasound

Low (20 kHz) and intermediate (100 kHz) frequency ultrasound (US) were studied for their efficiency on cell destruction and metabolites extraction of the microalga T. suecica. This study revealed different levels of cell destruction. Firstly, the prolonged irradiation of US at low frequency allowed the extraction of 90% of total proteins and 70% of carbohydrates by rapidly inducing at high power (100 W or 200 W) a coiling up phenomenon of the cell walls on themselves. A low power (50 W) over short times allows extracting proteins by the perforation of the cells without destroying them, opening the perspective of milking. Furthermore, the use of 100 kHz frequency, showed lower yields of metabolites as well as a low level of cell destruction, resulting in a simple deflation of the cells.

Microalgae-Sustainable Source for Alternative Proteins and Functional Ingredients Promoting Gut and Liver Health

Dietary proteins derived from animal sources, although containing well-balanced profiles of essential amino acids, have considerable environmental and adverse health effects associated with the intake of some animal protein-based products. Consuming foods based on animal proteins carries a higher risk of developing non-communicable diseases such as cancer, heart disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Moreover, dietary protein consumption is increasing due to population growth, posing a supply challenge. There is, therefore, growing interest in discovering novel alternative protein sources. In this context, microalgae have been recognized as strategic crops that can provide a sustainable source of protein. Compared to conventional high-protein crops, using microalgal biomass for protein production presents several advantages in food and feed in terms of productivity, sustainability, and nutritional value. Moreover, microalgae positively impact the environment by not exploiting land or causing water pollution. Many studies have revealed the potential of microalgae as an alternative protein source with the added value of positive effects on human health due to their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-cancer properties. The main emphasis of this review is on the potential health-promoting applications of microalgae-based proteins, peptides, and bioactive substances for IBD and NAFLD.

Extraction of Valuable Biomolecules from the Microalga Haematococcus pluvialis Assisted by Electrotechnologies

The freshwater microalga Haematococcus pluvialis is well known as the cell factory for natural astaxanthin, which composes up to 4-7% of its total dry weight. The bioaccumulation of astaxanthin in H. pluvialis cysts seems to be a very complex process that depends on different stress conditions during its cultivation. The red cysts of H. pluvialis develop thick and rigid cell walls under stress growing conditions. Thus, the biomolecule extraction requires general cell disruption technologies to reach a high recovery rate. This short review provides an analysis of the different steps in H. pluvialis's up and downstream processing including cultivation and harvesting of biomass, cell disruption, extraction and purification techniques. Useful information on the structure of H. pluvialis's cells, biomolecular composition and properties and the bioactivity of astaxanthin is collected. Special emphasis is given to the recent progress in application of different electrotechnologies during the growth stages and for assistance of the recovery of different biomolecules from H. pluvialis.

Major Phytochemicals: Recent Advances in Health Benefits and Extraction Method

Recent scientific studies have established a relationship between the consumption of phytochemicals such as carotenoids, polyphenols, isoprenoids, phytosterols, saponins, dietary fibers, polysaccharides, etc., with health benefits such as prevention of diabetes, obesity, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, etc. This has led to the popularization of phytochemicals. Nowadays, foods containing phytochemicals as a constituent (functional foods) and the concentrated form of phytochemicals (nutraceuticals) are used as a preventive measure or cure for many diseases. The health benefits of these phytochemicals depend on their purity and structural stability. The yield, purity, and structural stability of extracted phytochemicals depend on the matrix in which the phytochemical is present, the method of extraction, the solvent used, the temperature, and the time of extraction.

Cell disruption and lipid extraction from Chlorella species for biorefinery applications: Recent advances

Chlorella is a promising microalga for CO₂-neutral biorefinery that co-produces drop-in biofuels and multiple biochemicals. Cell disruption and selective lipid extraction steps are major technical bottlenecks in biorefinement because of the inherent robustness and complexity of algal cell walls. This review focuses on the state-of-the-art achievements in cell disruption and lipid extraction methods for Chlorella species within the last five years. Various chemical, physical, and biological approaches have been detailed theoretically, compared, and discussed in terms of the degree of cell wall disruption, lipid extractability, chemical toxicity, cost-effectiveness, energy use, scalability, customer preferences, environment friendliness, and synergistic combinations of different methods. Future challenges and prospects of environmental-friendly and efficient extraction technologies are also outlined for practical applications in sustainable Chlorella biorefineries. Given the diverse industrial applications of Chlorella, this review may provide useful information for downstream processing of the advanced biorefineries of other algae genera.

Enhancement of Metabolite Production in High-Altitude Microalgal Strains by Optimized C/N/P Ratio

This study evaluated the role of C/N/P in the increase in the synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in two high-mountain strains of algae (Chlorella sp. UFPS019 and Desmodesmus sp. UFPS021). Three carbon sources (sodium acetate, sodium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate), and the sources of nitrogen (NaNO3) and phosphate (KH2PO4 and K2HPO4) were analyzed using a surface response (3 factors, 2 levels). In Chlorella sp. UFPS019, the optimal conditions to enhance the synthesis of carbohydrates were high sodium carbonate content (3.53 g/L), high KH2PO4 and K2HPO4 content (0.06 and 0.14 g/L, respectively), and medium-high NaNO3 (0.1875 g/L). In the case of lipids, a high concentration of sodium acetate (1.19 g/L) coupled with high KH2PO4 and K2HPO4 content (0.056 and 0.131 g/L, respectively) and a low concentration of NaNO3 (0.075 g/L) drastically induced the synthesis of lipids. In the case of Desmodesmus sp. UFPS021, the protein content was increased using high sodium acetate (2 g/L), high KH2PO4 and K2HPO4 content (0.056 and 0.131 g/L, respectively), and high NaNO3 concentration (0.25 g/L). These results demonstrate that the correct adjustment of the C/N/P ratio can enhance the capacity of high-mountain strains of algae to produce high concentrations of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.

Recovering Microalgal Bioresources: A Review of Cell Disruption Methods and Extraction Technologies

Microalgae have evolved into a promising sustainable source of a wide range of compounds, including protein, carbohydrates, biomass, vitamins, animal feed, and cosmetic products. The process of extraction of intracellular composites in the microalgae industry is largely determined by the microalgal species, cultivation methods, cell wall disruption techniques, and extraction strategies. Various techniques have been applied to disrupt the cell wall and recover the intracellular molecules from microalgae, including non-mechanical, mechanical, and combined methods. A comprehensive understanding of the cell disruption processes in each method is essential to improve the efficiency of current technologies and further development of new methods in this field. In this review, an overview of microalgal cell disruption techniques and an analysis of their performance and challenges are provided. A number of studies on cell disruption and microalgae extraction are examined in order to highlight the key challenges facing the field of microalgae and their future prospects. In addition, the amount of product recovery for each species of microalgae and the important parameters for each technique are discussed. Finally, pulsed electric field (PEF)-assisted treatments, which are becoming an attractive option due to their simplicity and effectiveness in extracting microalgae compounds, are discussed in detail.

Cell disruption and astaxanthin extraction from Haematococcus pluvialis: Recent advances

The green microalga Haematococcus pluvialis is an excellent source of astaxanthin, a powerful antioxidant widely used in cosmetics, aquaculture, health foods, and pharmaceuticals. This review explores recent developments in cell disruption and astaxanthin extraction techniques applied using H. pluvialis as a model species for large-scale algal biorefinery. Notably, this alga develops a unique cyst-like cell with a rigid three-layered cell wall during astaxanthin accumulation (∼4% of dry weight) under stress. The thick (∼2 µm), acetolysis-resistant cell wall forms the strongest barrier to astaxanthin extraction. Various physical, chemical, and biological cell disruption methods were discussed and compared based on theoretical mechanisms, biomass status (wet, dry, and live), cell-disruption efficacy, astaxanthin extractability, cost, scalability, synergistic combinations, and impact on the stress-sensitive astaxanthin content. The challenges and future prospects of the downstream processes for the sustainable and economic development of advanced H. pluvialis biorefineries are also outlined.

Selection of Culture Conditions and Cell Morphology for Biocompatible Extraction of β-Carotene from Dunaliella salina

Biocompatible extraction emerges recently as a means to reduce costs of biotechnology processing of microalgae. In this frame, this study aimed at determining how specific culture conditions and the associated cell morphology impact the biocompatibility and the extraction yield of β-carotene from the green microalga Dunaliella salina using n-decane. The results highlight the relationship between the cell disruption yield and cell volume, the circularity and the relative abundance of naturally permeabilized cells. The disruption rate increased with both the cell volume and circularity. This was particularly obvious for volume and circularity exceeding 1500 µm³ and 0.7, respectively. The extraction of β-carotene was the most biocompatible with small (600 µm³) and circular cells (0.7) stressed in photobioreactor (30% of carotenoids recovery with 15% cell disruption). The naturally permeabilized cells were disrupted first; the remaining cells seems to follow a gradual permeabilization process: reversibility (up to 20 s) then irreversibility and cell disruption. This opens new carotenoid production schemes based on growing robust β-carotene enriched cells to ensure biocompatible extraction.

Non-thermal Technologies for Food Processing

Food is subjected to various thermal treatments during processes to enhance its shelf-life. But these thermal treatments may result in deterioration of the nutritional and sensory qualities of food. With the change in the lifestyle of people around the globe, their food needs have changed as well. Today's consumer demand is for clean and safe food without compromising the nutritional and sensory qualities of food. This directed the attention of food professionals toward the development of non-thermal technologies that are green, safe, and environment-friendly. In non-thermal processing, food is processed at near room temperature, so there is no damage to food because heat-sensitive nutritious materials are intact in the food, contrary to thermal processing of food. These non-thermal technologies can be utilized for treating all kinds of food like fruits, vegetables, pulses, spices, meat, fish, etc. Non-thermal technologies have emerged largely in the last few decades in food sector.