Surface modification of magnetite nanoparticles using lactobionic acid and their interaction with hepatocytes

Hepatic Spheroid Formation on Carbohydrate-Functionalized Supramolecular Hydrogels

Two synthetic supramolecular hydrogels, formed from bis-urea amphiphiles containing lactobionic acid (LBA) and maltobionic acid (MBA) bioactive ligands, are applied as cell culture matrices in vitro. Their fibrillary and dynamic nature mimics essential features of the extracellular matrix (ECM). The carbohydrate amphiphiles self-assemble into long supramolecular fibers in water, and hydrogels are formed by physical entanglement of fibers through bundling. Gels of both amphiphiles exhibit good self-healing behavior, but remarkably different stiffnesses. They display excellent bioactive properties in hepatic cell cultures. Both carbohydrate ligands used are proposed to bind to asialoglycoprotein receptors (ASGPRs) in hepatic cells, thus inducing spheroid formation when seeding hepatic HepG2 cells on both supramolecular hydrogels. Ligand nature, ligand density, and hydrogel stiffness influence cell migration and spheroid size and number. The results illustrate the potential of self-assembled, carbohydrate-functionalized hydrogels as matrices for liver tissue engineering.

A hepatocyte-targeting nanoparticle for enhanced hepatobiliary magnetic resonance imaging

Hepatobiliary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can inform the diagnosis of liver tumours in patients with liver cirrhosis and hepatitis. However, its clinical utility has been hampered by the lack of sensitive and specific contrast agents, partly because hepatocyte-specific nanoparticles, regardless of their surface ligands, are readily sequestered by Kupffer cells. Here we show, in rabbits, pigs and macaques, that the performance of hepatobiliary MRI can be enhanced by an ultrasmall nanoparticle composed of a manganese ferrite core (3 nm in diameter) and poly(ethylene glycol)-ethoxy-benzyl surface ligands binding to hepatocyte-specific transmembrane metal and anion transporters. The nanoparticle facilitated faster, more sensitive and higher-resolution hepatobiliary MRI than the clinically used contrast agent gadoxetate disodium, a substantial enhancement in the detection rate (92% versus 48%) of early-stage liver tumours in rabbits, and a more accurate assessment of biliary obstruction in macaques. The nanoparticle's performance and biocompatibility support the further translational development of liver-specific MRI contrast agents.

Cinnamic acid and lactobionic acid based nanoformulations as a potential antiamoebic therapeutics

Acanthamoeba castellanii causes granulomatous amoebic encephalitis, an uncommon but severe brain infection and sight-threatening Acanthamoeba keratitis. Most of the currently used anti-amoebic treatments are not always effective, due to persistence of the cyst stage, and recurrence can occur. Here in this study we synthesize cinnamic acid and lactobionic acid-based magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) using co-precipitation technique. These nanoformulations were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and Atomic form microscopy. The drugs alone (Hesperidin, Curcumin and Amphotericin B), magnetic NPs alone, and drug-loaded nano-formulations were evaluated at a concentration of 100 μg/mL for antiamoebic activity against a clinical isolate of A. castellanii. Amoebicidal assays revealed that drugs and conjugation of drugs and NPs further enhanced amoebicidal effects of drug-loaded nanoformulations. Drugs and drug-loaded nanoformulations inhibited both encystation and excystation of amoebae. In addition, drugs and drug-loaded nanoformulations inhibited parasite binding capability to the host cells. Neither drugs nor drug-loaded nanoformulations showed cytotoxic effects against host cells and considerably reduced parasite-mediated host cell death. Overall, these findings imply that conjugation of medically approved drugs with MNPs produce potent anti-Acanthamoebic effects, which could eventually lead to the development of therapeutic medications.

Polyethyleneimine-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Cancer Theranostics

With the development of nanotechnology, various types of polymer-based drug delivery systems have been designed for biomedical applications. Polymer-based drug delivery systems with desirable biocompatibility can be efficiently delivered to tumor sites with passive or targeted effects and combined with other therapeutic and imaging agents for cancer theranostics. As an effective vehicle for drug and gene delivery, polyethyleneimine (PEI) has been extensively studied due to its rich surface amines and excellent water solubility. In this work, we summarize the surface modifications of PEI to enhance biocompatibility and functionalization. Additionally, the synthesis of PEI-based nanoparticles is discussed. We further review the applications of PEI-based drug delivery systems in cancer treatment, cancer imaging, and cancer theranostics. Finally, we thoroughly consider the outlook and challenges relating to PEI-based drug delivery systems.

Recent advances in engineering iron oxide nanoparticles for effective magnetic resonance imaging

Iron oxide nanoparticle (IONP) with unique magnetic property and high biocompatibility have been widely used as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent (CA) for long time. However, a review which comprehensively summarizes the recent development of IONP as traditional T₂ CA and its new application for different modality of MRI, such as T₁ imaging, simultaneous T₂/T₁ or MRI/other imaging modality, and as environment responsive CA is rare. This review starts with an investigation of direction on the development of high-performance MRI CA in both T₂ and T₁ modal based on quantum mechanical outer sphere and Solomon–Bloembergen–Morgan (SBM) theory. Recent rational attempts to increase the MRI contrast of IONP by adjusting the key parameters, including magnetization, size, effective radius, inhomogeneity of surrounding generated magnetic field, crystal phase, coordination number of water, electronic relaxation time, and surface modification are summarized. Besides the strategies to improve r₂ or r₁ values, strategies to increase the in vivo contrast efficiency of IONP have been reviewed from three different aspects, those are introducing second imaging modality to increase the imaging accuracy, endowing IONP with environment response capacity to elevate the signal difference between lesion and normal tissue, and optimizing the interface structure to improve the accumulation amount of IONP in lesion. This detailed review provides a deep understanding of recent researches on the development of high-performance IONP based MRI CAs. It is hoped to trigger deep thinking for design of next generation MRI CAs for early and accurate diagnosis.

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T₂ contrast capacity of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) could be improved based on quantum mechanical outer sphere theory.

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IONPs could be expand to be used as effective T₁ CAs by improving q value, extending τ_s, and optimizing interface structure.

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Environment responsive MRI CAs have been developed to improve the diagnosis accuracy.

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Introducing other imaging contrast moiety into IONPs could increase the contrast efficiency.

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Optimizing in vivo behavior of IONPs have been proved to enlarge the signal difference between normal tissue and lesion.

Hesperidin-, Curcumin-, and Amphotericin B- Based Nano-Formulations as Potential Antibacterials

To combat the public health threat posed by multiple-drug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, new drugs with novel chemistry and modes of action are needed. In this study, several drugs including Hesperidin (HES), curcumin (CUR), and Amphotericin B (AmpB) drug-nanoparticle formulations were tested for antibacterial strength against MDR Gram-positive bacteria, including Bacillus cereus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Gram-negative bacteria, including Escherichia coli K1, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica, and Serratia marcescens. Nanoparticles were synthesized and subjected to Atomic force microscopy, Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, and Zetasizer for their detailed characterization. Antibacterial assays were performed to determine their bactericidal efficacy. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays were carried out to measure drugs' and drug-nanoparticles' cytotoxic effects on human cells. Spherical NPs ranging from 153 to 300 nm were successfully synthesized. Results from antibacterial assays revealed that drugs and drug-nanoparticle formulations exerted bactericidal activity against MDR bacteria. Hesperidin alone failed to exhibit antibacterial effects but, upon conjugation with cinnamic-acid-based magnetic nanoparticle, exerted significant bactericidal activity against both the Gram-positive and Gram-negative isolates. AmpB-LBA-MNPs produced consistent, potent antibacterial efficacy (100% kill) against all Gram-positive bacteria. AmpB-LBA-MNPs showed strong antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria. Intriguingly, all the drugs and their conjugated counterpart except AmpB showed minimal cytotoxicity against human cells. In summary, these innovative nanoparticle formulations have the potential to be utilized as therapeutic agents against infections caused by MDR bacteria and represent a significant advancement in our effort to counter MDR bacterial infections.

Flexible Electronic Catheter Based on Nanofibers for the In Vivo Elimination of Circulating Tumor Cells

Clearing circulating tumor cells (CTCs) that are closely related to cancer metastasis and recurrence in peripheral blood helps to reduce the probability of cancer recurrence and metastasis. However, conventional therapies aiming at killing CTCs always cause damage to normal blood cells, tissues, and organs. Here, we report a flexible electronic catheter that can capture and kill CTCs via irreversible electroporation (IRE) with high efficiency. The flexible electronic catheter is assembled from nanofibers (NFs) with liquid metal-polymer conductor (MPC) electrodes. The NFs were modified with an epithelial cellular adhesion molecule (EpCAM) antibody on the surface to improve specific biorecognition and cell adhesion. Whole-body blood can be screened by the catheter repeatedly, during which the EpCAM antibody on a nanofiber can enrich CTCs to the surface of the catheter. Taking advantage of the high specific surface area, the capture efficiency of NF-based catheters for CTCs is 25 times higher than previously reported cases. Furthermore, the number of nonspecifically captured WBCs is less than 10 per mm² areas of the catheter, compared to their original large number of 4-11 × 10⁶ mL^-1 of whole blood, showing good specificity of the flexible electronic catheter. The flexible and biocompatible MPC electrodes have a high killing efficiency of 100% for the captured CTCs in a rabbit model. No noticeable hematologic index and morphological changes of the vessels and major organs were observed, indicating that this electronic catheter had good biocompatibility. The present functional electronic catheter offers an alternative strategy for improving the efficiency of clinical cancer therapy.

Engineered s-Triazine-Based Dendrimer-Honokiol Conjugates as Targeted MMP-2/9 Inhibitors for Halting Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Despite the advances in developing MMP-2/9 inhibitors, off-target side effects and pharmacokinetics problems remain major challenges hindering their clinical success in cancer therapy. However, recent targeting strategies have clearly revitalized MMP research. Herein, we introduce new s-triazine-based dendrimers endowed with intrinsic MMP-2/9 inhibitory potential and tetherable to hepatocellular carcinoma-specific targeting ligands and anticancer agents via biodegradable linkages for targeted therapy. The designed dendrimeric platform was built with potential zinc-binding branching linkers (hydrazides) and termini (carboxylic acids and hydrazides) to confer potency against MMP-2/9. Preliminary cytotoxicity screening and MMP-2/9 inhibition assay of the free dendrimers revealed promising potency (MMP-9; IC₅₀ =0.35-0.57 μM, MMP-2; IC₅₀ =0.39-0.77 μM) within their safe doses (EC₁₀₀ =94.15-42.75 μM). The hydrazide dendrimer was comparable to NNGH and superior to the carboxylic acid analogue. MTT assay showed that the free dendrimers were superior to the reference anticancer agent honokiol. Their anticancer potency was enhanced by HK conjugation, targeting ligands installation and PEGylation as exemplified by the hydrazide dendrimer conjugate (TPG₃ -NH₂ )-SuHK-FA-SuPEG (Huh-7; IC₅₀ =5.54 μM, HepG-2; IC₅₀ =10.07 μM) being 4 folds more active than HK, followed by the carboxylic acid conjugate (TPG₃ -OH)-HK-LA-PEG (Huh-7; IC₅₀ =14.97, HepG-2; IC₅₀ =21.29 μM). This was consistent with apoptosis studies.

Recent Advances in Gadolinium Based Contrast Agents for Bioimaging Applications

Gadolinium (Gd) based contrast agents (CAs) (Gd-CAs) represent one of the most advanced developments in the application of Gd for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Current challenges with existing CAs generated an urgent requirement to develop multimodal CAs with good biocompatibility, low toxicity, and prolonged circulation time. This review discussed the Gd-CAs used in bioimaging applications, addressing their advantages and limitations. Future research is required to establish the safety, efficacy and theragnostic capabilities of Gd-CAs. Nevertheless, these Gd-CAs offer extraordinary potential as imaging CAs and promise to benefit bioimaging applications significantly.

Facile Preparation of a Hairpin DNA-Gold Nanoparticle Monoconjugate with a Single-Dye Molecule and Lactobionic Acid as Targeting Ligand

We established a new design for a single molecular beacon-conjugated gold nanoparticle, named monoMB-GNP, which showed enhanced fluorescence emission only in the presence of the complementary DNA sequence. MonoMB-GNP also showed no apparent toxicity to NIH/3T3 cells at 1 nM, as determined by the water-soluble tetrazolium assay. Importantly, the lactobionic acid was successfully modified on the surface of monoMB-GNP. The proposed nanoparticle has prospects for use in several applications for targetable molecular beacon strategies.

Galactosylated iron oxide nanoparticles for enhancing oral bioavailability of ceftriaxone

The current study focuses on the development, characterization, biocompatibility investigation and oral bioavailability evaluation of ceftriaxone (CFT)-loaded lactobionic acid (LBA)-functionalized iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (MNP-LBA). Atomic force microscopy and dynamic light scattering showed that the developed CFT-loaded MNP-LBA is spherical, with a measured hydrodynamic size of 147 ± 15.9 nm and negative zeta potential values (-35 ± 0.58 mV). Fourier transformed infrared analysis revealed interactions between the nanocarrier and the drug. Nanoparticles showed high drug entrapment efficiencies of 91.5 ± 2.2%, and the drug was released gradually in vitro and shows prolonged in vitro stability using simulated gastrointestinal (GI) fluids. The formulations were found to be highly biocompatible (up to 100 µg/mL) and hemocompatible (up to 1.0 mg/mL). Using an albino rabbit model, the formulation showed a significant enhancement in drug plasma concentration up to 14.46 ± 2.5 µg/mL in comparison with its control (1.96 ± 0.58 µg/mL). Overall, the developed MNP-LBA formulation was found promising for provision of high-drug entrapment, gradual drug release and was appropriate for enhancing the oral delivery of CFT.

Current status and future directions of hepatocellular carcinoma-targeted nanoparticles and nanomedicine

INTRODUCTION

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major health problem worldwide. Conventional therapies covering either chemotherapy or combination therapy still have sub-optimal responses with significant adverse effects and toxicity. Moreover, tumor cells usually acquire resistance quickly for traditional approaches, limiting their use in HCC. Interest in nanomedicine due to minimal systemic toxicity and a high degree of target-specific drug-delivery have pulled the attention of health scientists in this area of therapeutics.

AREA COVERED

The review covers the incidence and epidemiology of HCC, proposed molecular drug targets, mechanistic approach and emergence of nanomedicines including nanoparticles, lipidic nanoparticles, vesicular-based nanocarrier, virus-like particles with momentous therapeutic aspects including biocompatibility, and toxicity of nanocarriers along with conclusions and future perspective, with an efficient approach to safely cross physiological barriers to reach the target site for treating liver cancer.

EXPERT OPINION

Remarkable outcomes have recently been observed for the therapeutic efficacy of nanocarriers with respect to a specific drug target against the treatment of HCC by existing under trial drugs.

Applications of Nanobiomaterials in the Therapy and Imaging of Acute Liver Failure

This review focuses on the therapeutic mechanisms, targeting strategies of various nanomaterials in acute liver failure, and recent advances of diverse nanomaterials for acute liver failure therapy, diagnosis, and imaging. This review provides an outlook on the applications of nanomaterials, especially on the new horizons in acute liver failure therapy, and inspires broader interests across various disciplines. Acute liver failure (ALF), a fatal clinical disease featured with overwhelming hepatocyte necrosis, is a grand challenge in global health. However, a satisfactory therapeutic option for curing ALF is still absent, other than liver transplantation. Nanobiomaterials are currently being developed for the diagnosis and treatment of ALF. The liver can sequester most of nanoparticles from blood circulation, which becomes an intrinsic superiority for nanobiomaterials targeting hepatic diseases. Nanobiomaterials can enhance the bioavailability of free drugs, thereby significantly improving the therapeutic effects in ALF. Nanobiomaterials can also increase the liver accumulation of therapeutic agents and enable more effective targeting of the liver or specific liver cells. In addition, stimuli-responsive, optical, or magnetic nanomaterials exhibit great potential in the therapeutical, diagnostic, and imaging applications in ALF. Therefore, therapeutic agents in combination with nanobiomaterials increase the specificity of ALF therapy, diminish adverse systemic effects, and offer a multifunctional theranostic platform. Nanobiomaterial holds excellent significance and prospects in ALF theranostics. In this review, we summarize the therapeutic mechanisms and targeting strategies of various nanobiomaterials in ALF. We highlight recent developments of diverse nanomedicines for ALF therapy, diagnosis, and imaging. Furthermore, the challenges and future perspectives in the theranostics of ALF are also discussed.

Silymarin-Loaded, Lactobionic Acid-Conjugated Porous PLGA Nanoparticles Induce Apoptosis in Liver Cancer Cells

HepG2 cells (HCC), characterized by epithelial-like morphology, high proliferation rates, and nontumorigenicity, require cost-effective and efficient treatment. Silymarin, a flavonoid extract of Silybum marianum, is effective in the treatment of HCC. Here, we have reported a comparative anticancer study of the well-characterized nanoformulations of lactobionic acid-adorned porous PLGA-encapsulated silymarin (LA-PLGA-Sil) with only porous PLGA-encapsulated silymarin (PLGA-Sil) against HepG2 cells. Treatment of HepG2 cells with LA-PLGA-Sil produced a significant deterioration in cell viability at an essentially low dose as compared with PLGA-Sil, due to the adorned lactobionic acid moiety, which results in better targeting. p53, a tumor suppressor gene, essentially initiates apoptosis in cells procuring wild-type p53 (p53 +/+). In our report, treatment of HepG2 cells (p53 +/+) with LA-PLGA-Sil activated p53, which in turn inhibited the proliferation of cells by instigating cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner and simultaneously stabilized the nuclear translocation of NFκB-p65. To explore the effect of LA-PLGA-Sil on the expression of microRNA, we observed that LA-PLGA-Sil markedly upregulated the miR-29b in human HCC cells. Reactivation of the p53 gene by miR-29b targeted Bcl-2 and triggered the sequential activation of mediators such as proapoptotic Bax protein, release of cytochrome c, and the activation of caspase proteins (caspase-3 and caspase-9). Furthermore, the overexpression of NFκB-p65 in HepG2 cells reversed the repression, and this stabilization effect of LA-PLGA-Sil on the nuclear translocation of p65 led to the significant downregulation of miR-29b and successively decreased the p53 expression in LA-PLGA-Sil-treated cells, thereby providing a survival mechanism to HepG2. In entirety, our study demonstrated the extensive potential of LA-PLGA-Sil to instigate the cell death of HepG2 cells via apoptosis by targeting the miR-29b/p53 axis through the stabilization of NFκB. It also impaired the migratory activity of HepG2 cells and thereby furnished a comprehensive way to HCC therapeutic treatment.

Protamine sulphate coated poly (lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles of MUC-1 peptide improved cellular uptake and cytokine release in mouse antigen presenting cells

AIM

MUC-1-peptide (M-1-pep) loaded poly (lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles were coated with protamine sulphate (PS), M-1-pep-PS-P-NPs for targeting antigen presenting cells (APCs) to evoke cytokine release.

METHODS AND RESULTS

M-1-pep-PS-P-NPs were tailored by emulsion-diffusion evaporation method and characterised in vitro under a set of rigorous parameters. The average particle size and zeta potential of optimised M-1-pep-PS-P-B-NPs was measured to be 132.21 ± 30.71 nm and 6.29 ± 0.71 mV, significantly (p < 0.01) higher than 71.24 ± 17.76-nm and -43.41 ± 3.37 mV of M-1-pep-P-NPs. Further, 50-μg/ml concentration of M-1-pep-PS-P-B-NPs displayed 82.4% cellular uptake in RAW 264.7 cells calculated in setting of fluorescence intensity significantly (p < 0.05) elevated than 63.1% of M-1-pep-P-NPs. Consistent to quantitative results, M-1-pep-PS-P-B-NPs also confirmed advanced cellular uptake (CU) in RAW 264.7 cells in contrast to M-1-pep-P-NPs suppose to be through multiple mechanisms including phagocytosis and clathrin mediated endocytosis.

CONCLUSION

M-1-pep-PS-P-B-NPs must be evaluated in vivo through inhalation route of administration for antitumor prospective in lung cancer xenograft model.

The Effect of Fe3O4 Nanoparticle Size on Electrical Properties of Nanofluid Impregnated Paper and Trapping Analysis

This paper systematically studies the effect of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticle size on the insulation performance of nanofluid impregnated paper. Three kinds of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles with different sizes and their nanofluid impregnated papers were prepared. Environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) and infrared spectroscopy were used to analyze the combination of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles and nanofluid impregnated paper. The effect of nanoparticle size on breakdown voltage and several dielectric characteristics, e.g., permittivity, dielectric loss, of the nanofluid impregnated paper were comparatively investigated. Studies show that the Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were bound to impregnated paper fibers by O-H bonds, while the relative permittivity and dielectric loss of the nanofluid impregnated papers were increased. Meanwhile, the increase of trap depth, caused by the nanoparticles, can trap the electric charge and improve the breakdown strength. The test results show that the direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) breakdown voltages of nanofluid impregnated paper increased by 9.1% and 10.0% compared to FR3 nanofluid impregnated paper, respectively.

Nanostructured Substrates for Detection and Characterization of Circulating Rare Cells: From Materials Research to Clinical Applications

Circulating rare cells in the blood are of great significance for both materials research and clinical applications. For example, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have been demonstrated as useful biomarkers for "liquid biopsy" of the tumor. Circulating fetal nucleated cells (CFNCs) have shown potential in noninvasive prenatal diagnostics. However, it is technically challenging to detect and isolate circulating rare cells due to their extremely low abundance compared to hematologic cells. Nanostructured substrates offer a unique solution to address these challenges by providing local topographic interactions to strengthen cell adhesion and large surface areas for grafting capture agents, resulting in improved cell capture efficiency, purity, sensitivity, and reproducibility. In addition, rare-cell retrieval strategies, including stimulus-responsiveness and additive reagent-triggered release on different nanostructured substrates, allow for on-demand retrieval of the captured CTCs/CFNCs with high cell viability and molecular integrity. Several nanostructured substrate-enabled CTC/CFNC assays are observed maturing from enumeration and subclassification to molecular analyses. These can one day become powerful tools in disease diagnosis, prognostic prediction, and dynamic monitoring of therapeutic response-paving the way for personalized medical care.

Green construction of recyclable amino-tannic acid modified magnetic nanoparticles: Application for β-glucosidase immobilization

The β-glucosidase (BGL) enzyme in food industry is great interest due to its role in food conversion to produce functional food products. In this study, the BGL was covalently immobilized onto amino-tannic acid modified Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanoparticles (ATA-Fe₃O₄ MNPs) as biocompatible nanoplatform by modified poly-aldehyde pullulan (PAP) as a cross-linker to enhance the ability and strength of the nanoparticle connection to the enzyme. The properties of support were subsequently characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). The highest percentage of loading and immobilization yield was obtained with 0.1 mg enzyme/mL citrate buffer (pH 6, 1 M) enzyme solution, carrier solution of 10 mg ATA-Fe₃O₄/3 mL citrate buffer (pH 6, 1 M), and PAP solution of 20% total reaction system volume. Optimum pH and temperature were found for free (pH 5.0 and temperature 30 °C) and immobilized (pH 6.0 and temperature 40 °C) enzyme. The immobilized BGL maintains its activity to 83% after 10 cycles. Therefore, immobilization of BGL by this method is an efficient procedure to improve the properties of enzyme.

Preparation of dual-modality yttrium-90 radiolabeled nanoparticles for therapeutic investigation

Magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles with narrow size distribution were synthesized by simple and high yielded co-precipitation technique using ferrous salts with a molar ratio of Fe3+/Fe2+=2. After coating of the nanoparticles with Stöber silica (SiO2@Fe3O4), nanoparticles were functionalized by amine groups. Then chelator molecules diethylenetriaminepentaacetic (DTPA) and tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) were coupled to the APTS-SiO2@Fe3O4 to chelating Y-90 radiometal that makes these nanoparticles a suitable agent for therapeutic application as dual-modality PET/MRI imaging. The results show the coupling of DTPA takes place better than DOTA. Synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) was followed by structure identification using XRD, SEM, TGA and IR techniques. In order to trace MNPs biodistribution, the radiolabeled MNPs-DTPA were prepared using 90Y (production of 90Y/90Sr generator) with a good labeling efficiency (about 92%, RTLS method). The biodistribution of the radiolabeled MNPs was checked in normal male rats up to 24 h compared to free Y3+. The data shows that the tracer accumulation is in reticuloendothelial tissue while the stability of the complex is highly retained.

Carrier-free nanodrug by co-assembly of chemotherapeutic agent and photosensitizer for cancer imaging and chemo-photo combination therapy

Nanosized drug delivery systems (NDDS) with photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) have been extensively exploited to improve the therapeutic performance and bio-safety of chemotherapeutic drugs in cancer. In this work, a carrier-free nanodrug was developed by co-assembly of the anti-cancer agent ursolic acid (UA), an asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR), which can recognize the target molecule lactobionic acid (LA), and the near-infrared (NIR) probe dye indocyanine green (ICG) to form UA-LA-ICG NPs by a simple and green self-assembly approach. The UA-LA-ICG NPs had suitable stability, showed controlled release profile of UA drugs, and exhibited preferable temperature response (∼59.4 °C) under laser irradiation (808 nm, 1 W/cm2). Compared with free ICG, the UA-LA-ICG NPs significantly enhanced the intracellular ICG uptake. Upon irradiation of the NIR laser, co-assembled nanodrugs demonstrated great performance as a reactive oxygen species (ROS) producer and exhibited more anti-proliferative activities on ASGPR-overexpressing HepG2 cells than ASGPR low-expressing HeLa cells. Meanwhile, in vivo NIR fluorescence imaging exhibited that the co-assembled nanodrugs were specifically targeted to the tumor by the active targeting property of LA, and its circulation time was much longer than that of free ICG. In addition, UA-LA-ICG NPs + NIR irradiation treatment displayed enhanced inhibitory effect on tumor growth in H22 tumor-bearing mice. Overall, the co-assembly of chemotherapeutic agent and photosensitizer by the self-assembly approach might open an alternative avenue and give inspiration to fabricate new carrier-free nanodrugs for cancer imaging and chemo-photo combination therapy.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

The present study for the first time reported carrier-free nanoparticles (NPs) by co-assembly of a natural product ursolic acid (UA), an asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR)-recognized sugar molecule lactobionic acid (LA), and the near-infrared dye indocyanine green (ICG) through a simple and green approach. The preparation process of nanodrugs is simple, rapid, effective, and labor-saving. The co-assembled nanodrugs were capable of stabilizing the ICG molecules and specifically targeting to the tumor, which could increase the tumor accumulation in cancer imaging and also enhance the efficacy of chemo-phototherapy.

Potential use of ricotta cheese whey for the production of lactobionic acid by Pseudomonas taetrolens strains

Lactobionic acid (LBA) is a fine chemical largely applied in the food, chemical, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. Here, its production from ricotta cheese whey (RCW), or scotta, the main by-product obtained from ricotta cheese production process and currently employed mainly for cattle feed, was evaluated. Among seven bacterial species tested, only two Pseudomonas taetrolens strains were selected after preliminary screening in shake-flasks. When autoclaved RCW was used, a lactobionic acid titer of 34.25 ± 2.86 g/l, with a conversion yield (defined as mol LBA/mol of consumed lactose%) of up to 85 ± 7.0%, was obtained after 48 h of batch fermentation in 3 L stirred tank bioreactor. This study is a preliminary investigation on the potential industrial use of scotta as a substrate for bacterial growth and lactobionic acid production that details the possible biotechnological valorization pathways and feasibility of the process.

Aqueous-phase synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles and composites for cancer diagnosis and therapy

The design and development of multifunctional nanoplatforms for biomedical applications still remains to be challenging. This review reports the recent advances in aqueous-phase synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄ NPs) and their composites for magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and photothermal therapy of cancer. Water dispersible and colloidally stable Fe₃O₄ NPs synthesized via controlled coprecipitation route, hydrothermal route and mild reduction route are introduced. Some of key strategies to improve the r₂ relaxivity of Fe₃O₄ NPs and to enhance their uptake by cancer cells are discussed in detail. These aqueous-phase synthetic methods can also be applied to prepare Fe₃O₄ NP-based composites for dual-mode molecular imaging applications. More interestingly, aqueous-phase synthesized Fe₃O₄ NPs are able to be fabricated as multifunctional theranostic agents for multi-mode imaging and photothermal therapy of cancer. This review will provide some meaningful information for the design and development of various Fe₃O₄ NP-based multifunctional nanoplatforms for cancer diagnosis and therapy.

New molecular targets for functionalized nanosized drug delivery systems in personalized therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma, the most frequent solid tumor of the liver, has a very poor prognosis, being the second most common cause of death from cancer worldwide. The incidence and mortality of this liver tumor are increasing in most areas of the world as a consequence of aging and the emerging of new risk factors such as the metabolic syndrome, beside the recognized role of hepatitis B and C viral infections and alcohol abuse. Despite the increasing knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying hepatic carcinogenesis, effective therapeutic strategies are still an unmet clinical need. Efforts have been made to develop selective drugs as well as effective targeted drug delivery systems. The development of novel drug carriers for therapeutic molecules can indeed offer a valuable strategy to ameliorate the efficacy of HCC treatment. In this review, we discuss recent drug delivery strategies for HCC treatment based on the exploitation of targeted nanoparticles (NPs). Indeed, a few of these platforms have achieved an advanced stage of preclinical development. Here, we review the most promising drug nanovehicles based on both synthetic and natural polymers, including polysaccharides that have emerged for their biocompatibility and biodegradability. To maximize site-selectivity and therapeutic efficacy, drug delivery systems should be functionalized with ligands which can specifically recognize and bind targets expressed by HCC, namely cell membrane associated antigens, receptors or biotransporters. Cell surface and intracellular molecular targets are exploited either to selectively deliver drug-loaded nanovehicles or to design novel selective therapeutics. In conclusion, the combination of novel and safe drug delivery strategies based on site-specific targeted drug nanovehicles with therapeutic molecular targets may significantly improve the pharmacological efficacy for the treatment of HCC.

Simultaneous inhibition of growth and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma by co-delivery of ursolic acid and sorafenib using lactobionic acid modified and pH-sensitive chitosan-conjugated mesoporous silica nanocomplex

Co-delivery multiple drugs using nanocarriers has been recognized as a promising strategy for cancer treatment to enhance therapeutic efficacy. In this study, a pH sensitive mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) based controlled release nanoparticles for co-delivery of sorafenib (SO), a multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitor, and ursolic acid (UA), a sensitive agent for SO, was developed, which was decorated with pH sensitive chitosan (CS) and lactobionic acid (LA) targeting to asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) over-expressing hepatocellar carcinoma cells (denoted as USMNs-CL). The nanocomplex enhanced bioavailability of hydrophobic drugs, efficient tumor cell targeting and exhibited pH-responsive function and sustained release profile. USMNs-CL showed synergistic cytotoxicity and could attenuate the adhesion, migration of ASGPR over-expressing liver cancer SMMC-7721 cells at non-toxic concentrations. Moreover, the complex nanoparticles significantly increased the cellular apoptosis and down-regulated the expression of EGFR and VEGFR2 proteins related with cell proliferation and tumor angiogenesis. In vivo, compared with UA or SO alone, the nanocomplex significantly reduced the tumor burden in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) H22 tumor-bearing mice model and inhibited the lung metastasis in the H22 lung metastasis models. Overall, co-delivery of UA and SO by MSN-CS-LA nanocarriers could provide a promising strategy for HCC combinational therapy, especially for the HCC metastasis chemoprevention.

Study of Dielectric Breakdown Performance of Transformer Oil Based Magnetic Nanofluids

Research on the transformer oil-based nanofluids (NFs) has been raised expeditiously over the past decade. Although, there is discrepancy in the stated results and inadequate understanding of the mechanisms of improvement of dielectric nanofluids, these nanofluids have emerged as a potential substitute of mineral oils as insulating and heat removal fluids for high voltage equipment. The transformer oil (TO) based magnetic fluids (ferrofluids) may be regarded as the posterity insulation fluids as they propose inspiring unique prospectus to improve dielectric breakdown strength, as well as heat transfer efficiency, as compared to pure transformer oils. In this work, transformer oil-based magnetic nanofluids (MNFs) are prepared by dispersal of Fe3O4 nanoparticles (MNPs) into mineral oil as base oil, with various NPs loading from 5 to 80% w/v. The lightning impulse breakdown voltages (BDV) measurement was conducted in accordance with IEC 60897 by using needle to sphere electrodes geometry. The test results showed that dispersion of magnetic NPs may improve the insulation strength of MO. With the increment of NPs concentrations, the positive lightning impulse (LI) breakdown strength of TO is first raised, up to the highest value at 40% loading, and then tends to decrease at higher concentrations. The outcomes of negative LI breakdown showed that BDV of MNFs, with numerous loadings, were inferior to the breakdown strength of pure MO. The 40% concentration of nanoparticles (optimum concentration) was selected, and positive and negative LI breakdown strength was also further studied at different sizes (10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm and 40 nm) of NPs and different electrode gap distances. Augmentation in the BDV of the ferrofluids (FFs) is primarily because of dielectric and magnetic features of Fe3O4 nanoaprticles, which act as electron scavengers and decrease the rate of free electrons produced in the ionization process. Research challenges and technical difficulties associated with ferrofluids for practical applications are mentioned. The advantages and disadvantages linked with magnetic fluids are also presented.

Targeting human liver cancer cells with lactobionic acid-G(4)-PAMAM-FITC sorafenib loaded dendrimers

Reported here is the synthesis and biological evaluation of the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGP-R) targeted fourth generation poliamidoamine dendrimer (G(4)-PAMAM) loaded with sorafenib. The ASGP-R targeted dendrimer was obtained by conjugation of Lactobionic acid (La) to the G(4)-PAMAM dendrimer, followed by acetylation (Ac) of the free amino groups in order to reduce the non-specific interactions with the cell membrane. Moreover, by additionally grafting fluorescein (FITC), it was easy to characterize the internalization pathway and the intracellular fate of the targeted dendrimer Ac-La-G(4)-PAMAM-FITC. In vitro experiments performed on HepG-2 and HLE cell lines, allowed to study the ability of the dendrimers to affect the cell vitality. Confocal microscopy and cytofluorimetric analysis confirmed higher binding and uptake ability of the Ac-La-G(4)-PAMAM-FITC dendrimer in well differentiated and ASGP-R expressing human liver cancer cell line HepG-2 compared non-expressing HLE cells. Ac-La-G(4)-PAMAM-FITC dendrimer loaded with sorafenib was stable and showed sustained sorafenib release. As evidenced by the cytotoxicity studies, sorafenib included in the dendrimer maintained its effectiveness, and was able to produce a longer lasting effect over the time compared to molar equivalent doses of free sorafenib. This new targeted dendrimer appears to be a suitable carrier for the delivery of sorafenib to liver cancer cells expressing ASGP-R.

Toxicity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles: Effect of dose and time on biochemical disturbance, oxidative stress and genotoxicity in mice

The toxic impact of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂NPs) on human health is of prime importance owing to their wide uses in many commercial industries. In the present study, the effect of different doses and exposure time durations of TiO₂NPs (21nm) inducing oxidative stress, biochemical disturbance, histological alteration and cytogenetic aberration in mice liver and bone marrow was investigated. Different doses of (TiO₂NPs) (50, 250 and 500mg/kg body weight) were each daily intrapertioneally injected to mice for 7, 14 and 45days. Aspartate and alanine aminotransferases (AST &ALT), gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), total protein, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT) and nitric oxide (NO) levels were measured. The work was extended to evaluate the liver histopathological pattern and the chromosomal aberration in mice spinal cord bone marrow. The results revealed severe TiO₂NPs toxicity in a dose and time dependent manner with positive correlation (r=0.98) for most investigated biochemical parameters. The same observation was noticed for the histological analysis. In case of cytogenetic study, chromosomal aberrations were demonstrated after injection of TiO₂NPs with 500mg/kg b. wt. for 45days. In conclusion, the selected biochemical parameters and the liver architectures were influenced with dose and time of TiO₂NPs toxicity, while the genetic disturbance started at the high dose of exposure and for long duration. Further studies are needed to fulfil the effect of TiO₂NPs on pharmaceutical and nutritional applications.

Perspective of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles Role in Biomedical Applications

In recent years, although many review articles have been presented about bioapplications of magnetic nanoparticles by some research groups with different expertise such as chemistry, biology, medicine, pharmacology, and materials science and engineering, the majority of these reviews are insufficiently comprehensive in all related topics like magnetic aspects of process. In the current review, it is attempted to carry out the inclusive surveys on importance of magnetic nanoparticles and especially magnetite ones and their required conditions for appropriate performance in bioapplications. The main attentions of this paper are focused on magnetic features which are less considered. Accordingly, the review contains essential magnetic properties and their measurement methods, synthesis techniques, surface modification processes, and applications of magnetic nanoparticles.

Nanoparticle-liver interactions: Cellular uptake and hepatobiliary elimination

30-99% of administered nanoparticles will accumulate and sequester in the liver after administration into the body. This results in reduced delivery to the targeted diseased tissue and potentially leads to increased toxicity at the hepatic cellular level. This review article focuses on the inter- and intra-cellular interaction between nanoparticles and hepatic cells, the elimination mechanism of nanoparticles through the hepatobiliary system, and current strategies to manipulate liver sequestration. The ability to solve the "nanoparticle-liver" interaction is critical to the clinical translation of nanotechnology for diagnosing and treating cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and other diseases.

A highly stable and biocompatible optical bioimaging nanoprobe based on carbon nanospheres

In this report, a facile one-step synthesis strategy has been developed for producing fluorescent carbon nanospheres (CNs) using lactobionic acid (LBA) as a precursor.

SPION@Cu2−xS nanoclusters for highly sensitive MRI and targeted photothermal therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma

The diagnostic function of SPIONs and photo-thermal therapeutic function of CuS NPs have been incorporated into a single nanoplatform for biomedical applications.

Dextran-coated superparamagnetic nanoparticles as potential cancer drug carriers in vivo

Dextran-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (DSPIONs) have gained considerable interest, because of their biocompatibility and biosafety in clinics. Doxorubicin (Dox), a widely used chemotherapeutic drug, always has limited applications in clinical therapy due to its serious side effects of dose-limiting irreversible cardiotoxicity and myelo suppression. Herein, DSPIONs were synthesized and developed as magnetic carriers for doxorubicin. The Dox-DSPION conjugates were evaluated in the in vitro test of Dox release, which showed pH-dependence with the highest release percentage of 50.3% at pH 5.0 and the lowest release percentage of 11.8% in a physiological environment. The cytotoxicity of DSPIONs and Dox-DSPIONs evaluated by the MTT assay indicated that DSPIONs had no cytotoxicity and the conjugates had significantly reduced the toxicity (IC50 = 1.36 μg mL(-1)) compared to free Dox (IC50 = 0.533 μg mL(-1)). Furthermore, confocal microscopic data of cell uptake suggest that less cytotoxicity of Dox-DSPIONs may be attributed to the cellular internalization of the conjugates and sustainable release of Dox from the formulation in the cytoplasm. More importantly, the results from the rabbit VX2 liver tumor model test under an external magnetic field showed that the conjugates had approximately twice the anti-tumor activity and two and a half times the animal survival rate, respectively, compared to free Dox. Collectively, our data have demonstrated that Dox-DSPIONs have less toxicity with better antitumor effectiveness in in vitro and in vivo applications, suggesting that the conjugates have potential to be developed into chemo-therapeutic formulations.

Diagnostic imaging and therapeutic application of nanoparticles targeting the liver

Liver diseases, particularly viral hepatitis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, are common in clinical practice with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Many substances for diagnostic imaging and therapy of liver diseases may have either severe adverse effects or insufficient effectiveness in vivo because of their nonspecific uptake. Therefore, by targeting the delivery of drugs into the liver or specific liver cells, drug efficiency may be largely improved. This review summarizes the up-to-date research progress focusing on nanoparticles targeting the liver for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Targeting strategies, mechanisms of enhanced effects, and clinical applications of nanoparticles are discussed specifically. We believe that new targeting nanotechnology such as nanoprobes for multi-modality imaging and multifunctional nanoparticles would facilitate significant advancements in this active research area in the near future.

Carbohydrate nanocarriers in biomedical applications: functionalization and construction

Carbohydrates are used to functionalize or construct nanocarriers for biomedical applications – specific targeting, biocompatibility, stealth effect, biodegradability.

Capturing hepatocellular carcinoma cells using lactobionic acid-functionalized electrospun polyvinyl alcohol/polyethyleneimine nanofibers

Crosslinked PVA/PEI nanofibers can be functionalized with lactobionic acid via a PEG spacer for specific capture of hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Targeted images of KB cells using folate-conjugated gold nanoparticles

Mercaptosuccinic acid-coated gold (GM) nanoparticles were prepared and characterized by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. Folic acid (F) was then conjugated to the GM to preferentially target oral squamous cancer (KB) cells with folate receptors expressed on their membranes and facilitate the transit of the nanoparticles across the cell membrane. Finally, a fluorescence dye (Atto) was conjugated to the nanoparticles to visualize their internalization into KB cells. After culture of the cells in a medium containing GM and folate-conjugated GM (GF), the interaction of surface-modified gold nanoparticles with KB cells was studied.

A biodegradable and fluorescent nanovehicle with enhanced selective uptake by tumor cells

The tumor-targeted drug delivery system, DOX@LA-pDAGEA/pPEGA-b-p(DMDEA-co-BADS), with reduction- and pH-dependent degradation and fluorescence imaging function displayed an enhanced anticancer effect.

In vivo hepatocyte MR imaging using lactose functionalized magnetoliposomes

The aim of this study was to assess a novel lactose functionalized magnetoliposomes (MLs) as an MR contrast agent to target hepatocytes as well as to evaluate the targeting ability of MLs for in vivo applications. In the present work, 17 nm sized iron oxide cores functionalized with anionic MLs bearing lactose moieties were used for targeting the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGP-r), which is highly expressed in hepatocytes. Non-functionalized anionic MLs were tested as negative controls. The size distribution of lactose and anionic MLs was determined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). After intravenous administration of both MLs, contrast enhancement in the liver was observed by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Label retention was monitored non-invasively by MRI and validated with Prussian blue staining and TEM for up to eight days post MLs administration. Although the MRI signal intensity did not show significant differences between functionalized and non-functionalized particles, iron-specific Prussian blue staining and TEM analysis confirmed the uptake of lactose MLs mainly in hepatocytes. In contrast, non-functionalized anionic MLs were mainly taken up by Kupffer and sinusoidal cells. Target specificity was further confirmed by high-resolution MR imaging of phantoms containing isolated hepatocytes, Kupffer cell (KCs) and hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) fractions. Hypointense signal was observed for hepatocytes isolated from animals which received lactose MLs but not from animals which received anionic MLs. These data demonstrate that galactose-functionalized MLs can be used as a hepatocyte targeting MR contrast agent to potentially aid in the diagnosis of hepatic diseases if the non-specific uptake by KCs is taken into account.

Efficient hepatic delivery of drugs: novel strategies and their significance

Liver is a vital organ responsible for plethora of functions including detoxification, protein synthesis, and the production of biochemicals necessary for the sustenance of life. Therefore, patients with chronic liver diseases such as viral hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma need immediate attention to sustain life and as a result are often exposed to the prolonged treatment with drugs/herbal medications. Lack of site-specific delivery of these medications to the hepatocytes/nonparenchymal cells and adverse effects associated with their off-target interactions limit their continuous use. This calls for the development and fabrication of targeted delivery systems which can deliver the drug payload at the desired site of action for defined period of time. The primary aim of drug targeting is to manipulate the whole body distribution of drugs, that is, to prevent distribution to non-target cells and concomitantly increase the drug concentration at the targeted site. Carrier molecules are designed for their selective cellular uptake, taking advantage of specific receptors or binding sites present on the surface membrane of the target cell. In this review, various aspects of liver targeting of drug molecules and herbal medications have been discussed which elucidate the importance of delivering the drugs/herbal medications at their desired site of action.