Antidiabetic activity of hydro-alcoholic stem bark extract of Callicarpa arborea Roxb. with antioxidant potential in diabetic rats

New clerodane diterpenoids from Callicarpa pseudorubella and their antitumor proliferative activity

Six previously undescribed clerodane diterpenes, cardorubellas A-F (1-6), along with seven known ones (7-13), were isolated from the aerial parts of Callicarpa pseudorubella. Their chemical structures were established by analysis of 1D and 2D NMR, HR-ESI-MS, X-ray diffraction, and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data. Notably, cardorubella B (2) represented the first examples of naturally occurring succinic anhydride-containing clerodane diterpenes derivatives. The anti-proliferative activities of these compounds were assessed. Remarkably, compound 2 exhibited comparable inhibitory activity against HEL cell lines, surpassing the positive control with an IC50 value of 14.01 ± 0.77 μM, compared to 17.02 ± 4.70 μM for 5-fluorouracil.

Antioxidant and Antidiabetic Potential of Ormocarpum cochinchinense (Lour.) Merr. Leaf: An Integrated In vitro and In silico Approach

Diabetes is a prevalent metabolic disorder associated with various complications. Inhibition of α-glucosidase and α-amylase enzymes is an effective strategy for managing non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. This study aimed to investigate the antioxidant and antidiabetic potential of Ormocarpum cochinchinense leaf through in vitro and in silico approaches. The methanol extract exhibited the highest phenolic and flavonoid content over solvent extracts aqueous, acetone, hexane, and chloroform, the same has been correlating with strong antioxidant activity. Furthermore, the methanol extract demonstrated significant inhibitory effects on α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes, indicating its potential as an antidiabetic agent. Molecular docking analysis identified compounds, including myo-inositol, with favorable binding energies comparable to the standard drug metformin. The selected compounds displayed strong binding affinity towards α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes. Structural dynamics analysis revealed that myo-inositol formed a more stable complex with the enzymes. These findings suggest that O. cochinchinense leaf possesses antioxidant and antidiabetic properties, making it a potential source for developing therapeutic agents.

In Vivo and in Silico Based Evaluation of Antidiabetic Potential of an Isolated Flavonoid from Allium hookeri in Type 2 Diabetic Rat Model

Allium hookeri (F: Liliaceae), an indigenous plant of Manipur, India, is traditionally used to treat various diseases and disorders like diabetes, hypertension, and stomach ache. In our previous study, the methanol extract of the plant showed significant antidiabetic potential in rats. In the present study, we evaluated the antidiabetic potential of a flavonoid compound named MEA isolated from the methanolic leaf extract of A. Hookeri in rats. Additionally, we assessed the compound's mode of action through the molecular docking study. The MEA reduced the blood glucose level from 317±12.8 to 99.4±6.67 mg/dl after 21 days of treatment. Besides, MEA also restored the body weights and other biochemical parameters including lipid profile significantly compared to the diabetic group (p<0.001). The histoarchitecture of the pancreatic tissues of the MEA treated group was also improved compared to the diabetic group. In the docking study, the compound showed good binding affinity in the active binding site of the two structures of pancreatic beta-cell SUR1 (Sulfonylurea Receptor 1) subunit with CDocker energy -31.556 kcal/mol and -39.703 kcal/mol, respectively. The compound MEA was found to be drug-like with non-carcinogenic, non-mutagenic and non-irritant properties. These findings indicate the antidiabetic potential of MEA, which might act by modulating the pancreatic beta-cell SUR1 subunit present in the KATP channel. Hence, the MEA would be a promising lead molecule to develop new antidiabetic drug candidates of the future.

Therapeutic Potential of Curcumin, a Bioactive Compound of Turmeric, in Prevention of Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes through the Modulation of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation

This study evaluates the anti-diabetic potential and underlying mechanisms of curcumin in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) rats. The rats were randomly divided into four groups: normal control, negative control (diabetic group), diabetic group receiving glibenclamide (positive control group), and curcumin plus STZ (treatment group). The anti-diabetic activities of curcumin were examined at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight through physiological, biochemical, and histopathological analysis. Compared to the normal control group rats, elevated levels of glucose, creatinine, urea, triglycerides (TG), and total cholesterol (TC) and low levels of insulin were found in the negative control rats. Curcumin treatment showed a significant decrease in these parameters and an increase in insulin level as compared to negative control rats. In negative control rats, a reduced level of antioxidant enzymes and an increased level of lipid peroxidation and inflammatory marker levels were noticed. Oral administration of curcumin significantly ameliorated such changes. From histopathological findings, it was noted that diabetic rats showed changes in the kidney tissue architecture, including the infiltration of inflammatory cells, congestion, and fibrosis, while oral administration of curcumin significantly reduced these changes. Expression of IL-6 and TNF-α protein was high in diabetic rats as compared to the curcumin treatment groups. Hence, based on biochemical and histopathological findings, this study delivers a scientific suggestion that curcumin could be a suitable remedy in the management of diabetes mellitus.

Exercise-related alterations in MCT1 and GLUT4 expressions in the liver and pancreas of rats with STZ-induced diabetes

Background

The liver and pancreas tissues play a central role in controlling glucose homeostasis. In patients with type I diabetes mellitus (T1DM), the function of these tissues is impaired. The positive effects of exercise have been shown in diabetic patients. To demonstrate the positive effects of exercise in T1DM, we examined the effects of moderate-intensity endurance training (MIET) on the liver enzymes and expression of MCT1 and GLUT4 genes.

Methods

Male Wistar rats were allocated into 4 groups of control (C), training (T), diabetic control (DC), and diabetes + training (DT). The serum levels of liver enzymes such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were determined by ELIZA. MCT1 and GLUT4 mRNA expressions in the liver and pancreas tissues were evaluated through real-time qPCR after 10 weeks of training.

Results

The mRNA levels of MCT1 and GLUT4 decreased in DC group and increased in DT group. T1DM led to weight loss, but the weight loss was less in the DT group. T1DM caused an increase in liver enzymes such as ALT, AST and ALP, whereas endurance training preserved enzymatic levels.

Conclusion

These results suggested that MIET increases levels of MCT1 and GLUT4 liver and pancreas in the diabetic rats and improves liver function tests. Upregulation of MCT1 and GLUT4 can probably improve the function of liver and pancreas tissues and promote glucose homeostasis in T1DM.

Valorization of Adhatoda vasica leaves: Extraction, in vitro analyses and in silico approaches

Adhatoda vasica (also called Vasaka) is a traditional medicinal herb used traditionally for the relief of cough, asthma, nasal congestion, bronchial inflammation, upper respiratory infections, bleeding disorders, skin diseases, leprosy, tuberculosis, diabetes, allergic conditions, rheumatism, tumor, and many more diseases. The present study aims to investigate the biological activities of vasicine, a potent alkaloid from A. vasica with different biological/ pharmacological assays and in silico techniques. Vasicine showed antimicrobial activity as evidenced fromthe colony-forming unit assay. It showed antioxidant activity in ABTS scavenging assay (IC50 = 11.5 μg/ml), ferric reducing power assay (IC50 = 15 μg/ml), DPPH radical scavenging assay (IC50 = 18.2 μg/ml), hydroxyl radical scavenging assay (IC50 = 22 μg/ml), and hydrogen peroxide assay (IC50 = 27.8 μg/ml). It also showed anti-inflammatory activity in proteinase inhibitory assay (IC50 = 76 μg/ml), BSA method (IC50 = 51.7 μg/ml), egg albumin method (IC50 = 53.2 μg/ml), and lipooxygenase inhibition assay (IC50 = 76 μg/ml). Vasicine showed antidiabetic activity in α-amylase inhibition assay (IC50 = 47.6 μg/ml), α-glucosidase inhibition assay (IC50 = 49.68 μg/ml), and non-enzymatic glycosylation of hemoglobin assay. It showed antiviral activity against HIV-protease (IC50 = 38.5 μg/ml). Vasicine also showed anticancer activity against lung cancer cells (IC50 = 46.5 μg/ml) and human fibroblast cells (IC50 = 82.5 μg/ml). In silico studies revealed that similar to the native ligands, vasicine also showed a low binding energy, i.e., good binding affinity for the active binding sites and interacted with α-amylase (-6.7 kcal/mol), α-glucosidase (-7.6 kcal/mol), cyclooxygenase (-7.4 kcal/mol), epidermal growth factor receptor (-6.4 kcal/mol), lipooxygenase (-6.9 kcal/mol), and HIV-protease (-6.4 kcal/mol). The present study ascertains the potential of vasicine as a bioactive compound isolated from A. vasica having therapeutic usefulness in many human diseases.

Evaluation of Antidiabetic Effect of Luteolin in STZ Induced Diabetic Rats: Molecular Docking, Molecular Dynamics, In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Despite the existence of modern antidiabetic medications, diabetes still affects millions of individuals worldwide, with a high death and disability rate. There has been a concerted search for alternative natural medicinal agents; luteolin (LUT), a polyphenolic molecule, might be a good choice, both because of its efficacy and because of it having fewer side effects, compared to conventional medicines. This study aims to explore the antidiabetic potential of LUT in diabetic rats, induced by streptozotocin (STZ; 50 mg/kg b.w.), intraperitoneally. The level of blood glucose, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), body weight, glycated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), lipidemic status, antioxidant enzymes, and cytokines were assessed. Also, its action mechanism was explored through molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. Oral supplementation of LUT for 21 days resulted in a significant decrease in the blood glucose, oxidative stress, and proinflammatory cytokine levels, and modulated the hyperlipidemia profile. LUT also ameliorated the tested biomarkers of liver and kidney function. In addition, LUT markedly reversed the damage to the pancreas, liver, and kidney cells. Moreover, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations revealed excellent antidiabetic behavior of LUT. In conclusion, the current investigation revealed that LUT possesses antidiabetic activity, through the reversing of hyperlipidemia, oxidative stress, and proinflammatory status in diabetic groups. Therefore, LUT might be a good remedy for the management or treatment of diabetes.

Aqueous Ethanolic Extract of Adiantum incisum Forssk. Protects against Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus via Attenuation of α-Amylase and Oxidative Stress

Purpose : This study was designed to investigate the antidiabetic effects of the aqueous ethanolic extract of Adiantum incisum Forssk. whole plant (AE-AI) in order to validate the folkloric claim. Methods : Streptozotocin (STZ) was used to induce type 2 diabetes mellitus (TII DM) in male Sprague-Dawley rats. STZ-induced diabetic rats were later treated orally with either AE-AI (125, 250, and 500 mg/kg) or glibenclamide for 35 days. Blood glucose levels were measured weekly and on day 35, animals were sacrificed, and blood samples and tissues were harvested for subsequent antioxidant and histopathological analyses. AE-AI was also analyzed in vitro for phytochemical, antioxidant, and α-amylase inhibitory assays. Results : The phytochemical screening of AE-AI confirmed the presence of essential bioactive compounds like cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, saponins, and fixed oils. AE-AI demonstrated abundant amounts of total phenolic and flavonoid contents and displayed prominent antioxidant activity as assessed via DPPH, phosphomolybdate, and nitric oxide scavenging assays. AE-AI treatment also showed α-amylase inhibitory activity comparable to acarbose. In addition, AE-AI treatment exhibited a wide margin of safety in rats and dose-dependently reduced STZ-induced blood glucose levels. Moreover, AE-AI increased the levels of GSH, SOD, catalase, and reduced MDA, and therefore prevented pathological effects of STZ on the kidney, liver, and pancreas. The blood glucose regulatory effect and antioxidant activity of AE-AI also aided in normalizing TII DM-mediated dyslipidemias. GC-MS analysis also demonstrated several potential antidiabetic phytoconstituents in AE-AI. Conclusion : These findings reveal that AE-AI possesses certain pharmacologically active compounds that can effectively treat STZ-induced TII DM owing to its antioxidant and α-amylase inhibitory potentials.

Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic potentials of Solidago virgaurea extract in alloxan-induced diabetes type 1

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the current study is to investigate the antidiabetic and hypolipidemic potentials of Solidago virgaurea extract in alloxan-induced diabetic rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Alloxan-induced diabetic rats were orally administered a dose of Solidago virgaurea extract (250 mg/kg body weight) daily for 15 days. Then blood glucose, insulin, serum lipid profile, amylase, tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF- α), and liver glycogen were determined. Besides, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase activities, and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in pancreatic tissue were assessed.

RESULTS

Solidago virgaurea extract significantly reduced blood glucose level, serum amylase activity, TNF-α level, and pancreatic MDA level as well as increasing the serum insulin, liver glycogen level, pancreatic SOD, and catalase activities in comparison with their corresponding diabetic rats, p < .05.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study support the ethnomedicinal use of Solidago virgaurea extract as an antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic in the management of diabetes mellitus.

Anti-inflammatory activity of Sabicea brevipes Wernharm (Rubiaceae)

Over the years, medicinal plants have been employed in the treatment of inflammation and related ailments. This study evaluated the anti-inflammatory potential of the aerial parts of S. brevipes. The extracts and fractions were further evaluated for anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced rat model at varying doses (200 and 400 mg/kg doses, orally) for 5 h of treatment. The result of the phytochemical screening showed the presence of alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, flavonoids and tannins in the aerial parts of the plant. The in vivo anti-inflammatory study exhibited inhibition of 42% and 44%, 47% and 36%, 33% and 31%, and 43% and 42% for methanol extract n-hexane fraction, ethyl acetate fraction, and methanol fraction, at 200 and 400 mg/kg doses, respectively. The positive control (diclofenac sodium) showed an inhibition value of 51% at 5 mg/kg dose. Finally, it is concluded that S. brevipes possesses anti-inflammatory potential which validates the enthnomedicinal claim of the plant.

Dietary Polyphenols and Their Role in Oxidative Stress-Induced Human Diseases: Insights Into Protective Effects, Antioxidant Potentials and Mechanism(s) of Action

Dietary polyphenols including phenolic acids, flavonoids, catechins, tannins, lignans, stilbenes, and anthocyanidins are widely found in grains, cereals, pulses, vegetables, spices, fruits, chocolates, and beverages like fruit juices, tea, coffee and wine. In recent years, dietary polyphenols have gained significant interest among researchers due to their potential chemopreventive/protective functions in the maintenance of human health and diseases. It is believed that dietary polyphenols/flavonoids exert powerful antioxidant action for protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS)/cellular oxidative stress (OS) towards the prevention of OS-related pathological conditions or diseases. Pre-clinical and clinical evidence strongly suggest that long term consumption of diets rich in polyphenols offer protection against the development of various chronic diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), cancer, diabetes, inflammatory disorders and infectious illness. Increased intake of foods containing polyphenols (for example, quercetin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, resveratrol, cyanidin etc.) has been claimed to reduce the extent of a majority of chronic oxidative cellular damage, DNA damage, tissue inflammations, viral/bacterial infections, and neurodegenerative diseases. It has been suggested that the antioxidant activity of dietary polyphenols plays a pivotal role in the prevention of OS-induced human diseases. In this narrative review, the biological/pharmacological significance of dietary polyphenols in the prevention of and/or protection against OS-induced major human diseases such as cancers, neurodegenerative diseases, CVDs, diabetes mellitus, cancer, inflammatory disorders and infectious diseases have been delineated. This review specifically focuses a current understanding on the dietary sources of polyphenols and their protective effects including mechanisms of action against various major human diseases.

Analysis of polyphenols in Aegle marmelos leaf and ameliorative efficacy against diabetic mice through restoration of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory status

The biomedical survey reports edible plant Aegle marmelos has been utilized for centuries by tribal communities in India as a dietary supplement for the management of diabetes. Herein, we have investigated cytotoxicity, cytoprotective and antidiabetic activity of characterized alkaloid-free hydroalcoholic extract of A. marmelos (AFEAM; 200 and 400 mg/kg). Identification of polyphenols and quantification of major compounds were done using UPLC-MS and HPTLC, respectively. AFEAM showed good cytocompatibility and cytoprotective potential against oxidative stress induced by hyperglycemia in HepG₂ cells. The AFEAM intake had significantly ameliorated the serum blood glucose level, state of dyslipidemia, level of pro-inflammatory markers (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, and interleukin-1β), and antioxidant (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and malondialdehyde) status in diabetic mice. Histological examination of the treated groups showed amelioration of damaged pancreas, liver, and kidney tissues. Conclusively, AFEAM intake might be promising dietary supplements for prediabetics as well as an adjuvant to modern treatment in diabetics. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Different reports have been published on Aegle marmelos but as per our understanding till date, no study has been reported on the amelioration of diabetes due to alkaloid free hydroalcoholic extract of A. marmelos /polyphenolic content in the animal model. The result of this study indicated that A. marmelos supplementation effectively ameliorates diabetes through the restoration of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory status. This study has collated sufficient scientific evidence for the dietary application of A. marmelos in society especially for prediabetics, however, it can also be used as an adjuvant to modern treatments in diabetics.

Ameliorative effect of Annona reticulata L. leaf extract on antihyperglycemic activity and its hepato-renal protective potential in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats

Background

Annona reticulata L. is a traditionally important plant due to its versatile source of medicine and industrial products. It is used to treat cardiac problems, wound healing, diabetes, ulcers and bacterial infections. As it is a commercial fruit bearing plant, wide range studies on this plant reaches the mankind efficiently.

Objective(s)

The present study was focussed on antihyperglycemic potential of A. reticulata leaves under in vitro and in vivo.

Material and methods

The in vitro phytochemical analysis, total phenolic, flavonoid content, inhibition activity on alpha amylase and alpha glucosidase enzymes were determined for various solvent extracts, followed by in vivo oral toxicity, short term, dose dependant antihyperglycemic studies, oral glucose tolerance tests were performed. The activity of methanolic extract of A.reticulata (MeEAR)-500 mg/kg b.wt was studied for 28 days in diabetic rat model. Histopathological examinations and serum biochemical assays were performed. Gas chromatography–Mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis was performed to identify the compounds present in MeEAR.

Results

Among the various extracts, MeEAR possesses higher amount of phenols and flavonoids with effective inhibition on carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes (P < 0.05) and also exhibited higher glycemic control in vivo, with simultaneous improvement in the hepatic and renal activities in diabetic rats. GC–MS analysis revealed the presence of 63 bioactive compounds including carboxylic-acids, alcoholic groups, fattyacid esters, amino acid derivatives.

Conclusion

Altogether, our study demonstrated that leaves of A.reticulata possess better antihyperglycemic activity and could be developed in to a potential antidiabetic drug with further studies.

Bioactive Antidiabetic Flavonoids from the Stem Bark of Cordia dichotoma Forst.: Identification, Docking and ADMET Studies

Cordia dichotoma Forst. (F. Boraginaceae) has been traditionally used for the management of a variety of human ailments. In our earlier work, the antidiabetic activity of methanolic bark extract of C. dichotoma (MECD) has been reported. In this paper, two flavonoid molecules were isolated (by column chromatography) and identified (by IR, NMR and mass spectroscopy/spectrometry) from the MECD with an aim to investigate their antidiabetic effectiveness. Molecular docking and ADMET studies were carried out using AutoDock Vina software and Swiss ADME online tool, respectively. The isolated flavonoids were identified as 3,5,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxy-4-methoxyflavone-3-O-L-rhamnopyranoside and 5,7,3′-trihydroxy-4-methoxyflavone-7-O-L-rhamnopyranoside (quercitrin). Docking and ADMET studies revealed the promising binding affinity of flavonoid molecules for human lysosomal α-glucosidase and human pancreatic α-amylase with acceptable ADMET properties. Based on computational studies, our study reports the antidiabetic potential of the isolated flavonoids with predictive pharmacokinetics profile.

In Vitro Evaluation of Antidiabetic and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Polyphenolic-Rich Extracts from Anchusa officinalis and Melilotus officinalis

This study was focused on the phytochemical composition and biological activities of Anchusa officinalis and Melilotus officinalis polyphenolic-rich extracts obtained by nanofiltration. The high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis showed that chlorogenic acid and rosmarinic acid were the main phenolic acids in both extracts. The main flavonoid compound from A. officinalis extracts is luteolin, whereas rutin and isoquercitrin are the main flavonoids in M. officinalis. M. officinalis polyphenolic-rich extract had the highest α-amylase (from hog pancreas) inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 1.30 ± 0.06 μg/mL) and α-glucosidase (from Saccharomyces cerevisiae) inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 92.18 ± 1.92 μg/mL). However, both extracts presented a significant α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Furthermore, the hyaluronidase inhibition of polyphenolic-rich extracts also proved to be stronger (IC₅₀ = 11.8 ± 0.1 μg/mL for M. officinalis and 36.5 ± 0.2 μg/mL for A. officinalis), but there was moderate or low lipoxygenase inhibition. The studies on the fibroblast cell line demonstrated that both A. officinalis and M. officinalis polyphenolic-rich extracts possess the cytotoxic effect at a concentration higher than 500 μg/mL. The experimental data suggest that both extracts are promising candidates for the development of natural antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory food supplements.

Moringa concanensis Nimmo extracts ameliorates hyperglycemia-mediated oxidative stress and upregulates PPARγ and GLUT4 gene expression in liver and pancreas of streptozotocin-nicotinamide induced diabetic rats

The current study investigates the effects of ethanolic extract of M. concanensis Nimmo leaves (EEMCNL) with respect to its potent protective tissue damage, antioxidant properties in serum, liver and kidney, histopathological evaluation, and PPARγ and GLUT4 gene expression in liver and pancreatic tissue of Streptozotocin-Nicotinamide (STZ-NA) induced diabetic rats. Animals were divided into five groups (n = 5): control; diabetic; diabetic + EEMCNL; control + EEMCNL; and diabetic + glibenclamide. After 45 days of treatment with EEMCNL, MDA levels were significantly decreased in the diabetic-induced group when compared with the STZ-induced diabetic group (P < 0.05). The activities of serum enzymes AST, ALT, ALP, ACP and LDH were significantly decreased in serum and kidney, and increased in liver tissues of the EEMCNL-treated group as compared with the STZ-NA induced diabetic group (P < 0.05). The levels of total protein, urea, creatinine and uric acid observed in the diabetic group returned to normal by administration of EEMCNL (250 mg/kg) as relative to the STZ-NA induced diabetic group (P < 0.05). Furthermore, EEMCNL upregulated PPARγ and GLUT4 expression in liver and pancreatic tissue of the STZ-NA induced diabetic group rats. Taken together, these findings contribute to a better understanding of the hepatoprotective and renoprotective potential of EEMCNL against oxidative stress in the diabetic state, which was evidenced by the capacity of EEMCNL to modulate the antioxidant defence and to decrease lipid peroxidation in these tissues.

Management of diabetes using herbal extracts: review

Diabetes is a group of metabolic diseases characterised by hyperglycemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. The chronic hyperglycemia of diabetes is associated with long-term damage and dysfunction of many organs. Diabetes caused 1.5 million deaths in 2012, with hyperglycemia causing an additional 2.2 million deaths, as it is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular and other diseases. Various types of plants have been used for several centuries worldwide not only as dietary supplements but also as traditional treatment regimens for many diseases. So far, a large number of traditionally claimed plant medicine has been tested for diabetes and some of them showed a promising therapeutic potential. The main focus of this review is to describe what we know to date of herbal extracts, along with their glucose-lowering mechanisms, which are either through insulin-mimicking activity, enhanced β-cells regeneration, or glucose uptake.