Gambogic acid induces heme oxygenase-1 through Nrf2 signaling pathway and inhibits NF-κB and MAPK activation to reduce inflammation in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells

Fangji Fuling Decoction Alleviates Sepsis by Blocking MAPK14/FOXO3A Signaling Pathway

OBJECTIVE

To examine the therapeutic effect of Fangji Fuling Decoction (FFD) on sepsis through network pharmacological analysis combined with in vitro and in vivo experiments.

METHODS

A sepsis mouse model was constructed through intraperitoneal injection of 20 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide (LPS). RAW264.7 cells were stimulated by 250 ng/mL LPS to establish an in vitro cell model. Network pharmacology analysis identified the key molecular pathway associated with FFD in sepsis. Through ectopic expression and depletion experiments, the effect of FFD on multiple organ damage in septic mice, as well as on cell proliferation and apoptosis in relation to the mitogen-activated protein kinase 14/Forkhead Box O 3A (MAPK14/FOXO3A) signaling pathway, was analyzed.

RESULTS

FFD reduced organ damage and inflammation in LPS-induced septic mice and suppressed LPS-induced macrophage apoptosis and inflammation in vitro (P<0.05). Network pharmacology analysis showed that FFD could regulate the MAPK14/FOXO signaling pathway during sepsis. As confirmed by in vitro cell experiments, FFD inhibited the MAPK14 signaling pathway or FOXO3A expression to relieve LPS-induced macrophage apoptosis and inflammation (P<0.05). Furthermore, FFD inhibited the MAPK14/FOXO3A signaling pathway to inhibit LPS-induced macrophage apoptosis in the lung tissue of septic mice (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

FFD could ameliorate the LPS-induced inflammatory response in septic mice by inhibiting the MAPK14/FOXO3A signaling pathway.

A comprehensive review on signaling attributes of serine and serine metabolism in health and disease

Serine is a metabolite with ever-expanding metabolic and non-metabolic signaling attributes. By providing one‑carbon units for macromolecule biosynthesis and functional modifications, serine and serine metabolism largely impinge on cellular survival and function. Cancer cells frequently have a preference for serine metabolic reprogramming to create a conducive metabolic state for survival and aggressiveness, making intervention of cancer-associated rewiring of serine metabolism a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. Beyond providing methyl donors for methylation in modulation of innate immunity, serine metabolism generates formyl donors for mitochondrial tRNA formylation which is required for mitochondrial function. Interestingly, fully developed neurons lack the machinery for serine biosynthesis and rely heavily on astrocytic l-serine for production of d-serine to shape synaptic plasticity. Here, we recapitulate recent discoveries that address the medical significance of serine and serine metabolism in malignancies, mitochondrial-associated disorders, and neurodegenerative pathologies. Metabolic control and epigenetic- and posttranslational regulation of serine metabolism are also discussed. Given the metabolic similarities between cancer cells, neurons and germ cells, we further propose the relevance of serine metabolism in testicular homeostasis. Our work provides valuable hints for future investigations that will lead to a deeper understanding of serine and serine metabolism in cellular physiology and pathology.

Natural xanthones as modulators of the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway and potential gastroprotective agents

Oxidative stress is implicated in the initiation, pathogenesis, and progression of various gastric inflammatory diseases (GID). The prevalence of these diseases remains a concern along with the increasing risks of adverse effects in current clinical interventions. Hence, new gastroprotective agents capable of inhibiting oxidative stress by modulating cellular defense systems such as the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/antioxidant response element (ARE) signaling pathway are critically needed to address these issues. A candidate to solve the present issue is xanthone, a natural compound that reportedly exerts gastroprotective effects via antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective mechanisms. Moreover, xanthone derivatives were shown to modulate the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway to counter oxidative stress in both in vitro and in vivo models. Thirteen natural xanthones have demonstrated the ability to modulate the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway and have high potential as lead compounds for GID as indicated by their in vivo gastroprotective action-particularly mangiferin (2), α-mangostin (3), and γ-mangostin (4). Further studies on these compounds are recommended to validate the Nrf2 modulatory ability in relation to their gastroprotective action.

Therapeutic potential of traditional Chinese medicine for interstitial lung disease

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Interstitial lung disease (ILD) is a chronic lung dysfunction disease with a poor prognosis and poor recovery. The clinically used therapeutic drugs, such as glucocorticoids and immunosuppressants, have no significant therapeutic effect and are accompanied with severe side effects. In recent years, considerable progress has been made in exploring and applying natural herb components for treating ILD. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) possesses innate, non-toxic characteristics and offers advantages in preventing and treating pulmonary ailments. However, a comprehensive study of TCM on ILD therapy has not yet been reviewed.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review aimed to provide a comprehensive summary of the monomer components, total extracts, and prescriptions of TCM for ILD therapy, elucidating their molecular mechanisms to serve as a reference in treating ILD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The literature information was searched in the PubMed, Web of Science databases. The search keywords included 'interstitial lung disease', 'lung fibrosis' or 'pulmonary fibrosis', and 'traditional Chinese medicine', 'traditional herbal medicine', or 'herb medicine'.

RESULTS

The active components of single herbs, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenols, and quinones, have potential therapeutic effects on ILD. The active extracts and prescriptions were also summarized and analyzed. The herbs, Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. (Gancao), Astragalus membranaceus Fisch. Bunge. (Huangqi) and Angelicasinensis (Oliv.) Diels (Danggui), play significant roles in the treatment of ILD. The mechanisms involve the inhibition of inflammatory factor release, anti-oxidative injury, and interference with collagen production, etc. CONCLUSION: This review examines the therapeutic potential of TCM for ILD and elucidates its molecular mechanisms, demonstrating that mitigating inflammation and oxidative stress, modulating the immune system, and promoting tissue repair are efficacious strategies for ILD therapy. The depth research will yield both theoretical and practical implications.

Rabdosichuanin C inhibits productions of pro-inflammatory mediators regulated by NF-κB signaling in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells

Chronic pharyngitis (CP) is an inflammatory disease of the pharyngeal mucosa and its lymphatic tissues that is difficult to treat clinically. However, research on the exact therapeutic agents and molecular mechanisms of CP is still unclear. In this study, we investigated Rabdosichuanin C (RC) to attenuate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory damage in RAW264.7 cells by a combination of targeted virtual screening and in vitro activity assay and further clarified its molecular mechanism of action centering on the IκB/nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway. Molecular docking and pharmacophore simulation methods were used to screen compounds with IκB inhibitory effects. Expression of genes and proteins related to the IκB/NF-κB signaling pathway by RC in LPS-induced inflammatory injury model of RAW264.7 cells was detected by PCR, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and Western blot. The docking of RC with IκB protein showed good binding energy, and pharmacophore simulations further confirmed the active effect of RC in inhibiting IκB protein. RC intervention in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells significantly reduced the expression levels of inflammatory factors tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukins-6, iNOS, and CD-86 at the messenger RNA and protein levels, downregulated IκB, p65 protein phosphorylation levels, and significantly inhibited IκB/NF-κB signaling pathway activation. Virtual screening provided us with an effective method to rapidly identify compounds RC that target inhibit the action of IκB, and the activity results showed that RC inhibits NF-κB signaling pathway activation. It is suggested that RC may play a role in the treatment of CP by inhibiting the IκB/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Heme Oxygenase 1-Mediated Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Extract from the Aerial Part of Heracleum moellendorffii Hance

In this study, the anti-inflammatory effects of a methanolic extract from the aerial part of Heracleum moellendorffii Hance (HmAPE) and its underlying mechanisms were investigated. HmAPE demonstrated a significant reduction in nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells, and HmAPE decreased the protein and mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase. Further mechanistic studies on inflammatory signaling pathways revealed that HmAPE-mediated downregulation of inflammatory gene expressions was not associated with mitogen-activated protein kinases or nuclear factor-κB signaling pathways. However, HmAPE treatment activated nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and upregulated heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression, which is known to suppress pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Additionally, treatment with a selective HO-1 inhibitor, tin protoporphyrin IX, partially reversed the effects of HmAPE in LPS-treated RAW264.7 cells, indicating that HmAPE inhibited LPS-induced NO production, at least in part, through induction of Nrf2-mediated HO-1 expression. These findings suggest that HmAPE could serve as a potential edible source with anti-inflammatory properties, and further studies are required to ascertain its anti-inflammatory efficacy in vivo.

Neuroprotective Effects of Phenolic Antioxidant Tert-butylhydroquinone (tBHQ) in Brain Diseases

Human life and health are gravely threatened by brain diseases. The onset and progression of the illnesses are influenced by a variety of factors, including pathogenic causes, environmental factors, mental issues, etc. According to scientific studies, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress play a significant role in the development and incidence of brain diseases by producing pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative tissue damage to induce inflammation and apoptosis. Neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and oxidative stress-related changes are inseparable factors in the etiology of several brain diseases. Numerous neurodegenerative diseases have undergone substantial research into the therapeutic alternatives that target oxidative stress, the function of oxidative stress, and the possible therapeutic use of antioxidants. Formerly, tBHQ is a synthetic phenolic antioxidant, which has been widely used as a food additive. According to recent researches, tBHQ can suppress the processes that lead to neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, which offers a fresh approach to treating brain diseases. In order to achieve the goal of decreasing inflammation and apoptosis, tBHQ is a specialized nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2) activator that decreases oxidative stress and enhances antioxidant status by upregulating the Nrf2 gene and reducing nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) activity. This article reviews the effects of tBHQ on neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in recent years and looks into how tBHQ inhibits neuroinflammation and oxidative stress through human, animal, and cell experiments to play a neuroprotective role in Alzheimer's disease (AD), stroke, depression, and Parkinson's disease (PD). It is anticipated that this article will be useful as a reference for upcoming research and the creation of drugs to treat brain diseases.

Chitooligosaccharide from Pacific White Shrimp Shell Chitosan Ameliorates Inflammation and Oxidative Stress via NF-κB, Erk1/2, Akt and Nrf2/HO-1 Pathways in LPS-Induced RAW264.7 Macrophage Cells

Chitooligosaccharide (COS), found in both insects and marine sources, has several bioactivities, such as anti-inflammation and antioxidant activities. However, the mechanism of shrimp shell COS on retardation of inflammatory and antioxidant effects is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the mechanism of the aforementioned activities of COS in LPS-activated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. COS significantly improved cell viability in LPS-activated cells. COS at the level of 500 µg/mL could reduce the TNF-α, NO and IL-6 generations in LPS-activated cells (p < 0.05). Furthermore, COS could reduce ROS formation, NF-κB overactivation, phosphorylation of Erk1/2 and Akt and Nrf2/HO-1 in LPS-exposed cells. These results indicate that COS manifests anti-inflammatory activity and antioxidant action via NF-κB, Erk1/2, Akt and Nrf2/HO-1 signaling with an increasing relevance for inflammatory disorders.

Insights into Q-markers and molecular mechanism of Sanguisorba saponins in treating ulcerative colitis based on lipid metabolism regulation

BACKGROUND

Sanguisorba saponin extract (SSE) is the main active part of Sanguisorba officinalis with various pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial and anti-oxidant. However, its therapeutic role and underlying mechanisms for ulcerative colitis (UC) still need to be elucidated.

PURPOSE

This study aims to explore the therapeutic effect, effectiveness-material basis-quality markers (Q-markers) and prospective mechanism of function of SSE on UC.

METHODS

Fresh 2.5% dextran sulfate sodium salt (DSS) solution was placed in drinking bottles for 7 days to induce a mouse model of UC. SSE and sulfasalazine (SASP) were supplemented to mice by gavage for consecutive 7 days to investigate the therapeutic role of SSE on UC. Mouse monocyte macrophages (RAW264.7) and human normal colonic epithelial (NCM460) cells were treated with LPS to induce inflammatory responses, followed by pharmacodynamic examination with different concentrations of SSE. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) and Alcian blue staining were conducted to evaluate the pathological damage of mice colon. Lipidomic technology was conducted to explore the differential lipids closely related to the disease process of UC. Quantitative PCR analysis, immunohistochemistry and ELISA kit were used to measure the expression levels of the corresponding proteins and pro-inflammatory factors.

RESULTS

SSE treatment could effectively reduce the elevated expressions of pro-inflammatory factors in RAW264.7 and NCM460 cells due to LPS stimulation. Intragastric administration of SSE was found to significantly alleviate the symptoms of DSS-induced colon injury and low-polar saponins in SSE. Low polarity saponins, especially ZYS-II, were proved to be the main active substances of SSE in treating UC. In addition, SSE could significantly ameliorate the aberrant lipid metabolism in UC mice. The role of phosphatidylcholine (PC)34:1 in the UC pathogenesis has been fully verified in our previous studies. Herein, SSE-dosing effectively reversed the metabolic disorder of PCs in UC mice, and increased the PC34:1 level to normal via up-regulating the expression of phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (PCYT1α).

CONCLUSION

Our data innovatively revealed that SSE could significantly alleviate the symptoms of UC by reversing the disorder of PC metabolism induced by DSS modeling. SSE was proved for the first time to be a promising and effective candidate for UC treatment.

Type I Cystatin Derived from Fasciola gigantica Suppresses Macrophage-Mediated Inflammatory Responses

There is an inverse relationship between the high incidence of helminth infection and the low incidence of inflammatory disease. Hence, it may be that helminth molecules have anti-inflammatory effects. Helminth cystatins are being extensively studied for anti-inflammatory potential. Therefore, in this study, the recombinant type I cystatin (stefin-1) of Fasciola gigantica (rFgCyst) was verified to have LPS-activated anti-inflammatory potential, including in human THP-1-derived macrophages and RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. The results from the MTT assay suggest that rFgCyst did not alter cell viability; moreover, it exerted anti-inflammatory activity by decreasing the production of proinflammatory cytokines and mediators, including IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, iNOS, and COX-2 at the gene transcription and protein expression levels, as determined by qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis, respectively. Further, the secretion levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α determined by ELISA and the NO production level determined by the Griess test were decreased. Furthermore, in Western blot analysis, the anti-inflammatory effects involved the downregulation of pIKKα/β, pIκBα, and pNF-κB in the NF-κB signaling pathway, hence reducing the translocation from the cytosol into the nucleus of pNF-κB, which subsequently turned on the gene of proinflammatory molecules. Therefore, cystatin type 1 of F. gigantica is a potential candidate for inflammatory disease treatment.

Helixor-M Suppresses Immunostimulatory Activity through TLR4-Dependent NF-κB Pathway in RAW 264.7 Cells

Inflammation causes a protective immune response, which can be observed by examining the inflammatory responses of macrophages. Macrophages release various immunostimulatory factors when destroying external pathogens. We induced lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in RAW 264.7 cells, a macrophage cell line, to determine whether Helixor-M can cause immuno-suppression. Helixor-M is known to have anticancer and immune effects. However, an indicator that regulates immunity has not been clearly confirmed. To this end, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was conducted to confirm Helixor-M was not cytotoxic. Western blotting and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) confirmed the anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, immunofluorescence assay confirmed the translocation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) p65, a representative inflammatory pathway. Helixor-M was found to be non-cytotoxic, induce the NF-κB pathway, and reduce the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokine and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). We found Helixor-M affected the PI3K/AKT/JNK pathway. Therefore, we confirmed Helixor-M acts as an anti-inflammatory agent through NF-κB, TLR4 and PI3K inhibition and that it could be an effective immunosuppressive drug.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Garcinol Extracted from Garcinia dulcis via Modulating NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Garcinia is a significant medicinal plant with many beneficial phytoconstituents, including garcinol. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of garcinol isolated from Garcinia dulcis fruit in LPS-activated THP-1 and Raw 264.7 macrophages. The results demonstrated that the low concentration of garcinol did not alter cell viability. Furthermore, co-incubation of garcinol with LPS inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-8, IL-6, IL-1β, and pro-inflammatory mediators, including iNOS and COX-2 at the mRNA and protein expression levels. Garcinol also decreased the secretion of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, PGE2, and NO. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory effects involved an alteration in the NF-κB signaling pathway. Downregulation of pIKKα/β, pIκBα, and pNF-κB was observed, hence reducing the translocation of pNF-κB from the cytosol into the nucleus, which subsequently decreased the production of pro-inflammatory molecules. Therefore, garcinol isolated from Garcinia dulcis is a potential candidate as an anti-inflammatory agent for inflammation-related disease treatment.

Anti-inflammatory effects of extracellular vesicles from Morchella on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells via the ROS-mediated p38 MAPK signaling pathway

Morchella is a kind of important edible and medicinal fungi, which is rich in polysaccharides, enzymes, fatty acids, amino acids and other active components. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have a typical membrane structure, and the vesicles contain some specific lipids, miRNAs and proteins, and their can deliver the contents to different cells to change their functions. The present study investigated whether Morchella produce extracellular vesicles and its anti-inflammatory effect on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW246.7 macrophages. The experimental results showed that Morchella produced extracellular vesicles and significantly reduced the production of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a model of LPS-induced inflammation. In addition, the expression of inflammatory factor-related genes such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) showed dose-dependent inhibition. Morchella extracellular vesicles also can inhibit the inflammatory response induced by LPS by inhibiting the production of ROS and reducing the phosphorylation levels of the p38 MAPK signaling pathway. These results indicate that the Morchella extracellular vesicles can be used as a potential anti-inflammatory substance in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Anti-inflammatory action of ark shell (Scapharca subcrenata) protein hydrolysate in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophages

Potential anti-inflammatory effects of ark shell (Scapharca subcrenata) protein hydrolysates were investigated. Ark shell protein hydrolysates were prepared using Alcalase® and pepsin and were designated ASAH and ASPH, respectively. The nitric oxide (NO) inhibitory activity of ASAH and ASPH was determined in lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophages, and the results showed that ASAH inhibited better NO inhibitory activity than ASPH. ASAH suppressed inflammatory mediator, a prostaglandin E2, secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) dose dependently. It inhibited the protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and simulated heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) protein expression. However, the pharmacological approach revealed that pretreatment with zinc protoporphyrin ІX (ZnPP), an inhibitor of HO-1, reversed the anti-inflammatory effect of ASAH. Moreover, ASAH upregulated phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) including ERK1/2, JNK1/2, and p38 MAPK. To find out the role of MAPKs phosphorylation, MAPKs inhibitors were used, and the results showed that ASAH-mediated HO-1 protein expression and Nrf2 nuclear translocation were abolished. Taken all together, this study revealed that ASAH has a potential anti-inflammatory activity through regulation of the MAPK-dependent HO-1/Nrf2 pathway. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Food-derived marine bioactive peptides, due to their pivotal role in biological activities, are gaining much attention recently. However, the anti-inflammatory activities of ark shell protein hydrolysates still remain to be investigated. This study investigated that ASAH shows potential anti-inflammatory activities through regulation of the MAPK-dependent HO-1/Nrf2 pathway in RAW264.7 murine macrophages. These findings indicated that ASAH may be used as a dietary supplement, functional food, and medicinal drug for the management of inflammation and inflammation-associated diseases.

Natural Products Targeting Hsp90 for a Concurrent Strategy in Glioblastoma and Neurodegeneration

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most common aggressive, resistant, and invasive primary brain tumors that share neurodegenerative actions, resembling many neurodegenerative diseases. Although multiple conventional approaches, including chemoradiation, are more frequent in GBM therapy, these approaches are ineffective in extending the mean survival rate and are associated with various side effects, including neurodegeneration. This review proposes an alternative strategy for managing GBM and neurodegeneration by targeting heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90). Hsp90 is a well-known molecular chaperone that plays essential roles in maintaining and stabilizing protein folding to degradation in protein homeostasis and modulates signaling in cancer and neurodegeneration by regulating many client protein substrates. The therapeutic benefits of Hsp90 inhibition are well-known for several malignancies, and recent evidence highlights that Hsp90 inhibitors potentially inhibit the aggressiveness of GBM, increasing the sensitivity of conventional treatment and providing neuroprotection in various neurodegenerative diseases. Herein, the overview of Hsp90 modulation in GBM and neurodegeneration progress has been discussed with a summary of recent outcomes on Hsp90 inhibition in various GBM models and neurodegeneration. Particular emphasis is also given to natural Hsp90 inhibitors that have been evidenced to show dual protection in both GBM and neurodegeneration.

Antiliver Fibrosis Formula of Fuzheng Huayu Alleviates Inflammatory Response

Fuzheng Huayu’s (FZHY) formula ameliorated liver fibrosis in clinical and experimental practice. Based on the close link between fibrosis and inflammation, its anti-inflammatory effect and related mechanisms were explored in this present study. With the aid of the inflammatory macrophage model, FZHY significantly blocked nitrite accumulation without observable cytotoxicity due to its suppression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene and protein expressions in a concentration-depended manner. Proinflammatory mediators including IL-6, CD86, and CD40 were also restrained by FZHY. Interestingly, FZHY induced anti-inflammatory mediators heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR-γ) expressions simultaneously. Downregulation of iNOS and miR-155 and upregulation of PPAR-γ were also observed in CCl4-induced liver fibrosis mice upon FZHY administration. Mechanically, FZHY strikingly eliminated the phosphorylation of STAT1 and MAPK. Taken together, FZYH regulated the balance of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory mediators partially via modulating STAT1/MAPK pathways and the miR-155/PPAR-γ axis.

Free and Bound Phenolics of Laird Lentil (Lens culinaris) Hulls and the Anti-inflammatory Activity of their Digestive Products via Crosstalk between NF-κB and Keap1-Nrf2 Signaling Pathways in HT-29 Cells

Polyphenol-rich Laird lentil hulls are a byproduct of lentil processing. In the present study, free and bound polyphenols in lentil hulls were analyzed with UHPLC-LTQ-OrbiTrap-MS², and the anti-inflammatory mechanism of their digestive products was explored based on the NF-κB and Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathways in the HT-29 cell model. In summary, a total of 27 polyphenols and 5 nonphenolic constituents were identified in free and bound fractions, and among them, catechin glucoside, kaempferol tetraglucoside, procyanidin dimer, and dihydroxybenzoic acid-O-dipentoside were the main polyphenols in the digestive products. These digestive products could reduce inflammatory mediators and exert anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting NF-κB and activating Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathways, and there was crosstalk between them, which was a mutual inhibition effect. The results show that polyphenols in lentil hulls are a good source of anti-inflammatory ingredients and have a promising development potential.

Trimethylamine-N-Oxide Promotes Osteoclast Differentiation and Bone Loss via Activating ROS-Dependent NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), an important gut microbiota (GM)-derived metabolite, has been shown to be abnormally increased in osteoporosis. However, the role and underlying mechanism of TMAO in regulating bone loss during osteoporosis have not been fully investigated. In the current study, we found that 100–400 μM TMAO dose-dependently enhanced TRAP-positive osteoclasts, F-actin ring formation, and resorption area on bovine bone slices and up-regulated osteoclast-related gene expression (Calcr, Traf6, Dcstamp, Acp5, C-Fos, and NFATc1). Western blotting validated that TMAO not only activated NF-κB signaling pathway but also stimulated c-Fos and NFATc1 protein expression in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, BAY 11-7082, an NF-κB inhibitor, pretreatment markedly suppressed TRAP-positive osteoclast formation and osteoclast-related genes under TMAO treatment. BAY 11-7082 also inhibited p-p65/p65, c-Fos, and NFATc1 protein expression promoted by TMAO. Moreover, TMAO significantly increased ROS production, which was inhibited by N-acetylcysteine (NAC), an ROS antagonist. In addition, we proved that NAC pretreatment could inhibit TMAO-promoted NF-κB activation. NAC also suppressed TRAP-positive osteoclast formation, osteoclast-related gene expression, and protein expression of c-Fos and NFATc1 under TMAO treatment. In vivo studies showed significantly decreased bone mass and increased TRAP-positive osteoclasts in TMAO-treated C57BL/6 mice. Moreover, western-blotting and immunohistochemical staining showed that TMAO administration markedly stimulated NF-κB p65 expression. Additionally, TMAO administration significantly promoted the gene and protein expression of C-Fos and NFATc1. In conclusion, TMAO could promote osteoclast differentiation and induce bone loss in mice by activating the ROS-dependent NF-κB signaling pathway.

Two Pairs of 7,7'-Cyclolignan Enantiomers with Anti-Inflammatory Activities from Perilla frutescens

Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. (Labiatae), a medicinal plant, has been widely used for the therapy of multiple diseases since about 1800 years ago. It has been demonstrated that the extracts of P. frutescens exert significant anti-inflammatory effects. In this research, two pairs of 7,7′-cyclolignan enantiomers, possessing a cyclobutane moiety, (+)/(−)-perfrancin [(+)/(−)-1] and (+)/(−)-magnosalin [(+)/(−)-2], were separated from P. frutescens leaves. The present study achieved the chiral separation and determined the absolute configuration of (±)-1 and (±)-2. Compounds (+)-1 and (−)-1 have notable anti-inflammatory effects by reducing the secretion of pro-inflammatory factors (NO, TNF-α and IL-6) and the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators (iNOS and COX-2). These findings indicate that cyclolignans are effective substances of P. frutescens with anti-inflammatory activity. The present study partially elucidates the mechanisms underlying the effects of P. frutescens.

An inhibitor of interaction between the transcription factor NRF2 and the E3 ubiquitin ligase adapter β-TrCP delivers anti-inflammatory responses in mouse liver

It is widely accepted that activating the transcription factor NRF2 will blast the physiological anti-inflammatory mechanisms, which will help combat pathologic inflammation. Much effort is being put in inhibiting the main NRF2 repressor, KEAP1, with either electrophilic small molecules or disrupters of the KEAP1/NRF2 interaction. However, targeting β-TrCP, the non-canonical repressor of NRF2, has not been considered yet. After in silico screening of ∼1 million compounds, we now describe a novel small molecule, PHAR, that selectively inhibits the interaction between β-TrCP and the phosphodegron in transcription factor NRF2. PHAR upregulates NRF2-target genes such as Hmox1, Nqo1, Gclc, Gclm and Aox1, in a KEAP1-independent, but β-TrCP dependent manner, breaks the β-TrCP/NRF2 interaction in the cell nucleus, and inhibits the β-TrCP-mediated in vitro ubiquitination of NRF2. PHAR attenuates hydrogen peroxide induced oxidative stress and, in lipopolysaccharide-treated macrophages, it downregulates the expression of inflammatory genes Il1b, Il6, Cox2, Nos2. In mice, PHAR selectively targets the liver and greatly attenuates LPS-induced liver inflammation as indicated by a reduction in the gene expression of the inflammatory cytokines Il1b, TNf, and Il6, and in F4/80-stained liver resident macrophages. Thus, PHAR offers a still unexplored alternative to current NRF2 activators by acting as a β-TrCP/NRF2 interaction inhibitor that may have a therapeutic value against undesirable inflammation.

Concerted regulation of OPG/RANKL/ NF‑κB/MMP-13 trajectories contribute to ameliorative capability of prodigiosin and/or low dose γ-radiation against adjuvant- induced arthritis in rats

BACKGROUND

Prodigiosin (PDG) is a microbial red dye with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, although its effect on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) remains uncertain. Also, multiple doses of low dose γ- radiation (LDR) have been observed to be as a successful intervention for RA. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the ameliorative potential of PDG and/or LDR on adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) in rats.

METHODS

The anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects of PDG and/or LDR were examined in vitro and in vivo, respectively. In the AIA model, the arthritic indexes, paw swelling degrees, body weight gain, and histopathological assessment in AIA rats were assayed. The impact of PDG (200 µg/kg; p.o) and/or LDR (0.5 Gy) on the levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-18, IL-17A, and IL-10) as well as the regulation of osteoprotegrin (OPG)/ receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL)/ nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)/MMP-13 pathways was determined. Methotrexate (MTX; 0.05 mg/kg; twice/week, i.p) was administered concurrently as a standard anti-arthritic drug.

RESULTS

PDG and/or LDR markedly diminished the arthritic indexes, paw edema, weigh loss in AIA rats, alleviated the pathological alterations in joints, reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-18, IL-17A, and RANKL in serum and synovial tissues, while increasing anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and OPG levels. Moreover, PDG and/or LDR down-regulated the expression of RANKL, NF-κBp65, MMP13, caspase-3, and decreased the RANKL/OPG ratio, whereas OPG and collagen II were enhanced in synovial tissues.

CONCLUSION

PDG and/or LDR exhibited obvious anti-RA activity on AIA.

The anti-obesity effects of a water-soluble glucan from Grifola frondosa via the modulation of chronic inflammation

Polysaccharides from Grifola frondosa (G. frondosa) have anti-obesity and anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, the major type, molecular weight, homogeneity and structure of a polysaccharide purified from G. frondosa (denoted GFPA) were determined. In high-fat diet (HFD)-treated mice, 8 weeks of GFPA administration efficiently decreased body weight and blood glucose concentration and counteracted hyperlipidemia. GFPA efficiently decreased adipocyte size and ameliorated inflammatory infiltration in the three types of white adipose tissue and alleviated steatosis, fat accumulation and inflammatory infiltration in the livers of HFD-fed mice. GFPA also decreased the concentrations of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and pro-inflammatory factors in the sera and livers of HFD-treated mice. Furthermore, GFPA was found to regulate lipid metabolism via the inhibition of ceramide levels in HFD-treated mice. GFPA exhibited strong anti-obesity effects via the modulation of chronic inflammation through Toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor kappa-B signaling, which supports the use of GFPA for the treatment of obesity.

Polyphenol Content of Green Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Hull under In Vitro Digestion and Effects of Digestive Products on Anti-Inflammatory Activity and Intestinal Barrier in the Caco-2/Raw264.7 Coculture Model

Green pea hulls are a byproduct of the processing of green pea and are rich in phenolic substances. In the present study, in vitro digestion, human colonic adenocarcinoma cell line (Caco-2) monolayer, and the Caco-2/macrophage cell lines of the murine origin (Raw264.7) coculture model were established to investigate the release of polyphenols, absorption, and transport of digestive products and their effects on inflammation and intestinal barrier. During the digestive process, polyphenols were constantly released from the pea hulls, reaching the maximum amount in the small intestine (total phenolic content (TPC): 5.41 ± 0.04 mg gallic acid (GAE)/g dry weight (DW)), and the digestive products (800 μg/mL) could reduce the secretion of NO (50.9%), IL-6 (50.6%), and TNF-α (24.6%) and inhibit the mRNA expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) (37.2%) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (91.1%) compared with the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) group. A total of 12 phenolic components were quantified by ultraperformance liquid chromatography-linear ion trap orbitrap tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-LTQ-OrbiTrap-MS) technology. Kaempferol trihexoside in digestive products could be absorbed and transported (1.25 ± 0.13 ng quercetin/mL). The digestive products could promote the expression of claudin-1 (210.8%), occludin (64.9%), and zonulin occludin-1 (ZO-1) (52.0%) compared with the LPS group and exert anti-inflammatory effects after being absorbed. The results indicated that pea hull polyphenols could be continuously released and absorbed to play a positive role in protecting the intestinal barrier and anti-inflammatory activity.

Anti-inflammatory effects of flavonoids and phenylethanoid glycosides from Hosta plantaginea flowers in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages through inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway

Background

The flower of Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Aschers has traditionally been used in China as an important Mongolian medicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases with limited scientific evidence. In previous studies, 16 flavonoids and 3 phenylethanoid glycosides (1–19) were isolated from the ethanolic extract of H. plantaginea flowers. Nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory effects of these constituents remain unclear. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory effects of these 19 constituents and their underlying mechanisms were assessed in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Methods

The viability of RAW 264.7 macrophages was detected by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. Meanwhile, nitric oxide (NO) production was measured by Griess assay, while the secretion of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 in LPS-induced macrophages was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Furthermore, the protein expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65 and phosphorylated NF-κB p65 was evaluated by Western blot analysis.

Results

All constituents effectively suppressed excessive NO production at a concentration of 40 μM with no toxicity to LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. Among them, five flavonoids (1, 4–6 and 15) and one phenylethanoid glycoside (17) remarkably prevented the overproduction of NO with median inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values in the range of 12.20–19.91 μM. Moreover, compounds 1, 4–6, 15 and 17 potently inhibited the secretion of TNF-α, PGE2, IL-1β and IL-6, and had a prominent inhibitory effect on the down-regulation of the phosphorylated protein level of NF-κB p65.

Conclusion

Taken together, compounds 1, 4–6, 15 and 17 may be useful in managing inflammatory diseases by blocking the NF-κB signaling pathway and suppressing the overproduction of inflammatory mediators.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-022-03540-1.

Potential anti-inflammatory effect of anti-HMGB1 in animal models of ICH by downregulating the TLR4 signaling pathway and regulating the inflammatory cytokines along with increasing HO1 and NRF2

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a severe clinical problem without effective treatment; the leading cause is neuroinflammation. High-mobility group box one protein (HMGB1) is an abundant protein in the cell nucleus of most mammalian cells, which exerts its function by binding to chromatin. The present study focused on the therapeutic effect of anti-HMGB1 on ICH via the downregulation of inflammatory pathways. The ICH mice models were created by collagenase IV injection in the striatum of mice. Then, mice were received different medications and divided into three groups: anti-HMGB1, anti-Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and non-treated ICH groups. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was obtained, and ELISA was carried out to determine the levels of inflammatory agents. Microglial cells were isolated from the cerebral hemispheres, and then Real-Time PCR and western blot were performed. The results showed that the anti-inflammatory effects of anti-HMGB1 were tremendous than anti-TLR4. Overall, the results showed that anti-HMGB1 had a more reducer effect on pro-inflammatory cytokines release (****P < 0.0001) and expression (****P < 0.0001) than anti-TLR4 when compared with the control group. It was also determined that anti-HMGB1 increased heme-oxygenase-1 (HO1) and nuclear factor erythroid-derived factor 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) (****P < 0.0001) expression in comparison with the control group while it was not significant for anti-TLR4 (CLI-095). The present study suggested that anti-HMGB1 serves as a potential anti-inflammatory molecule via reducing TLR4-related signaling pathways, pro-inflammatory cytokines production, and increasing the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine along with heme-oxygenase-1 HO1 and NRF2 increment.

Hostaflavone A from Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch. blocked NF-κB/iNOS/COX-2/MAPKs/Akt signaling pathways in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hostaflavone A (HA) is a new flavonoid component isolated from the flower of Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Asch., which is commonly used as a folk herbal to treat inflammatory diseases in China. Nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory effect of HA remains unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This work aimed to evaluate the HA with anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism in RAW 264.7 macrophages activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Anti-inflammatory effect of HA was evaluated by measuring of cell viability, nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 levels in RAW 264.7 cells. In parallel, the HA action mechanism of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65, inhibitor of NF-κB (IκB), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk), p38, and protein kinase B (Akt) were detected by Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

HA has no cytotoxicity at concentrations as high as 40 μM. Besides, HA concentration-dependently clearly suppressed the overproduction of NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in RAW 264.7 cells induced by LPS. In addition, HA remarkably reduced the upregulation of phosphorylated NF-κB p65, phosphorylated IκB, phosphorylated JNK, phosphorylated Erk and phosphorylated p38, together with iNOS and COX-2 protein expressions in a concentration-dependent manner.

CONCLUSION

HA blocked the LPS activated inflammation via suppressing NF-κB, iNOS, COX-2, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and Akt pathways in RAW 264.7 cells, and might be a new anti-inflammatory agent.

Umuhengerin Neuroprotective Effects in Streptozotocin-Induced Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model via Targeting Nrf2 and NF-Kβ Signaling Cascades

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia and is characterized by advanced cognitive deterioration, deposition of Aβ (amyloid-beta), and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles. Administration of streptozotocin (STZ) via the intracerebroventricular (ICV) route is a reliable model resembling sporadic AD (SAD) associated neuropathological changes. The present study was undertaken to explore the neuroprotective effects of the methoxy flavonoid, umuhengerin, in an STZ-induced SAD mouse model as a potential therapy for AD. Mice were injected once with STZ (3 mg/kg, ICV), followed by daily administration of umuhengerin (orally, 30 mg/kg) or the positive control donepezil (orally, 2.5 mg/kg) for 21 days. The pharmacological activity of umuhengerin was assessed through estimation of oxidative stress and inflammatory markers via mouse ELISA kits, Western blot analysis, and brain histopathological examination. Morris water maze test was also conducted to investigate umuhengerin-induced cognitive enhancement. The results showed that umuhengerin attenuated STZ-produced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress with a notable rise in the expression of Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2). In contrast, it downregulated Keap-1 (Kelch-like ECH associated protein 1), as well as elevated brain contents of GSH (reduced glutathione) and HO-1 (heme oxygenase-1). STZ-injected animals receiving umuhengerin showed marked downregulation of the nuclear factor kappa beta (NF-Kβp65) and noticeable increment in the expression of its inhibitor kappa beta alpha protein (IKβα), as well as prominent reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA), H₂O₂ (hydrogen peroxide), and TNF-α (tumor-necrosis factor-alpha) contents. Β-secretase protein expression and acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity were also diminished upon umuhengerin injection in the STZ group, leading to decreased Aβ formation and cognitive improvement, respectively. In conclusion, umuhengerin neuroprotective effects were comparable to the standard drug donepezil; thus, it could be an alternative approach for AD management.

Review of the development of BTK inhibitors in overcoming the clinical limitations of ibrutinib

Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) regulates multiple important signaling pathways and plays a key role in the proliferation, survival, and differentiation of B-lineage cells and myeloid cells. BTK is a promising target for the treatment of hematologic malignancies. Ibrutinib, the first-generation BTK inhibitor, was approved to treat several B-cell malignancies. Despite the remarkable potency and efficacy of ibrutinib against various lymphomas and leukemias in the clinics, there are also some clinical limitations, such as off-target toxicities and primary/acquired drug resistance. As strategies to overcome these challenges, second- and third-generation BTK inhibitors, BTK-PROTACs, as well as combination therapies have been explored. In this review, we summarize clinical developments of the first-, second- and third-generation BTK inhibitors, as well as recent advances in BTK-PROTACs and ibrutinib-based combination therapies.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Three Triterpene from Hippophae rhamnoides L. in Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated RAW264.7 Cells

Oleanolic acid (OA), asiatic acid (AA), and maslinic acid (MA) are ubiquitous isomeric triterpene phytochemicals with many pharmacological effects. To improve their application value, we used lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce RAW264.7 cells and studied the differences in the anti-inflammatory effects of the triterpenes according to their structural differences. MTT, Griess, and immunofluorescence assays, ELISA, flow cytometry, and Western blotting, were performed. The release of LPS-induced pro-inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide (NO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and interleukin (IL-6), was significantly inhibited by OA, AA, and MA at the same concentration, and AA and MA promoted the production of anti-inflammatory factor IL-10. OA, AA, and MA inhibited LPS-induced NF-κB nuclear translocation in RAW264.7 cells. OA and AA inhibited the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, P38, and JNK1/2 in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Moreover, OA increased LPS-induced Nrf2 expression and decreased Keap1 expression in RAW264.7 cells. OA, AA, and MA inhibited LPS-stimulated intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and alleviated mitochondrial membrane potential depletion. Overall, our data suggested that OA, AA, and MA exhibited significant anti-inflammatory effects in vitro. In particular, OA and AA take effects through the MAPKs, NF-κB, and Nrf2 signaling pathways.

Therapeutic potential of chelerythrine as a multi-purpose adjuvant for the treatment of COVID-19

Multifunctional nature of phytochemicals and their chemical diversity has attracted attention to develop leads originated from nature to fight COVID-19. Pharmacological activities of chelerythrine and its congeners have been studied and reported in the literature. This compound simultaneously has two key therapeutic effects for the treatment of COVID-19, antiviral and anti-inflammatory activities. Chelerythrine can prevent hyper-inflammatory immune response through regulating critical signaling pathways involved in SARS-CoV-2 infection, such as alteration in Nrf2, NF-κB, and p38 MAPK activities. In addition, chelerythrine has a strong protein kinase C-α/-β inhibitory activity suitable for cerebral vasospasm prevention and eryptosis reduction, as well as beneficial effects in suppressing pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis. In terms of antiviral activity, chelerythrine can fight with SARS-CoV-2 through various mechanisms, such as direct-acting mechanism, viral RNA-intercalation, and regulation of host-based antiviral targets. Although chelerythrine is toxic in vitro, the in vivo toxicity is significantly reduced due to its structural conversion to alkanolamine. Its multifunctional action makes chelerythrine a prominent compound for the treatment of COVID-19. Considering precautions related to the toxicity at higher doses, it is expected that this compound is useful in combination with proper antivirals to reduce the severity of COVID-19 symptoms.

Plantanone C attenuates LPS-stimulated inflammation by inhibiting NF-κB/iNOS/COX-2/MAPKs/Akt pathways in RAW 264.7 macrophages

The flowers of Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Aschers are commonly used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases in traditional Chinese medicine with limited scientific evidence. Plantanone C (PC) is a new phytochemical isolated from H. plantaginea flowers; nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory effect remains unknown. Herein, we aimed to study the anti-inflammatory effects of PC and its underlying molecular mechanisms in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The cell viability of PC-treated RAW 264.7 macrophage was measured by the Cell Counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. The anti-inflammatory effect of PC was investigated by measuring the levels of inflammatory mediators and pro-inflammatory cytokines using the Griess reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Furthermore, the mechanism of action of PC was evaluated by Western blot analysis. The results showed that PC was not cytotoxic at concentrations as high as 40 μM. Furthermore, PC potently suppressed LPS-stimulated overproduction of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Western blot demonstrated that PC remarkably suppressed the phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) p65, inhibitor of NF-κB (IκB), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk), p38, and protein kinase B (Akt), as well as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) in a concentration-dependent manner. Taken together, these findings suggest that PC exhibits anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting NF-κB, iNOS, COX-2, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and Akt signaling pathways in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Isolation and characterization of phellodendronoside A, a new isoquinoline alkaloid glycoside with anti-inflammatory activity from Phellodendron chinense Schneid

Bark of Phellodendron chinense Schneid. (Rutaceae), called "Huang Bai" in China, is one of the 50 most used Chinese medicines in clinical practice. In this paper, a new isoquinoline alkaloid glycoside was isolated from P. chinense, and its structure was elucidated using spectroscopic method. The compound was eventually identified as (1S, 3"S)-1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydro-7-hydroxy-1-[(4-hydroxybenzyl) methyl]-2-methyl-8-O-isoquinolinyl-[3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl]-β-D-glucopyranoside and named as Phellodendronoside A (PDA). The results of molecular docking showed that PDA could stably bind to an extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), stress-activated protein kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) proteins that are closely related to inflammation. Further, the anti-inflammatory activity of PDA was evaluated using the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced RAW264.7 macrophage model. We observed that PDA can effectively reduce the levels of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and decrease the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Moreover, we found that PDA inhibits the activation of ERK, JNK and p38MAPK proteins in the MAPK signaling pathway. Collectively, the present study demonstrates that PDA has excellent anti-inflammatory effect in vitro by inhibiting the overproduction of pro-inflammatory mediators, and its mechanism of action involves suppressing the activation of MAPK pathways, suggesting that PDA may be a potential agent for the treatment of inflammatory illness.

RKC-B1 Blocks Activation of NF-κB and NLRP3 Signaling Pathways to Suppress Neuroinflammation in LPS-Stimulated Mice

RKC-B1 is a novel fermentation product obtained from the marine micromonospora FIM02-523A. Thus far, there have been few reports about the pharmacological activity of RKC-B1. In our present study, we investigated the anti-neuroinflammatory effects and the possible mechanism of RKC-B1 in LPS-stimulated mice. After treatment with RKC-B1, RNA-seq transcriptome of the cerebral cortex tissue was conducted to find the differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Inflammatory cytokines and proteins were evaluated by ELISA and WB. In RNA-seq analysis, there were 193 genes screened as core genes of RKC-B1 for treatment with neuroinflammation. The significant KEGG enrichment signaling pathways of these core genes were mainly included TNF signaling pathway, IL-17 signaling pathway, NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, NF-κB signaling pathway and others. The corresponding top five KEGG enrichment pathways of three main clusters in PPI network of core genes were closely related to human immune system and immune disease. The results showed that RKC-B1 reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory factors (IL-6, IL-1β, MCP-1, and ICAM-1) and the expression of COX2 in cerebral cortex tissue. Additionally, we found that the anti-neuroinflammation activity of RKC-B1 might be related to suppress activating of NF-κB and NLRP3/cleaved caspase-1 signaling pathways. The current findings suggested that RKC-B1 might be a promising anti-neuroinflammatory agent.

Rotundic acid reduces LPS-induced acute lung injury in vitro and in vivo through regulating TLR4 dimer

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a serious clinical disease. Rotundic acid (RA), a natural ingredient isolated from Ilex rotunda Thunb, exhibits multiple pharmacological activities. However, RA's therapeutic effect and mechanism on ALI remain to be elucidated. The present study aimed to further clarify its regulating effects on inflammation in vitro and in vivo. Our results indicated that RA significantly inhibited the overproduction of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). RA decreased ROS production and calcium influx. In addition, RA inhibited the activation of PI3K, MAPK, and NF-κB pathways and enhanced the activity of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling. The cellular thermal shift assay and docking results indicated that RA bind to TLR4 to block TLR4 dimerization. Furthermore, RA pretreatment effectively inhibited ear edema induced by xylene and LPS-induced endotoxin death and had a protective effect on LPS-induced ALI. Our findings collectively indicated that RA has anti-inflammatory effects, which may serve as a potential therapeutic option for pulmonary inflammation.

Characteristic Malonyl Ginsenosides from the Leaves of Panax notoginseng as Potential Quality Markers for Adulteration Detection

Due to the high price and limited supply of Panax notoginseng, a large number of samples adulterated with the leaves appear in the market. A group of new malonyl ginsenosides were exclusively detected in the P. notoginseng leaves (PNL). Targeted isolation of the malonyl ginsenosides was guided by UPLC-QDa MS. HRMS, 1D/2D NMR, and chemical methods were used for structural identification. A selected ion monitoring method was developed based on UPLC-QDa MS to detect the adulterations. In addition, the anti-inflammatory activities and the collision-induced dissociation features of the isolated saponins were studied. As a result, eight new 3-OH malonylated dammarane-type triterpene oligoglycosides (notoginsenosides L3-L10) were obtained from PNL. Adulteration with PNL can be easily detected with limit of detection as low as 0.06%. To sum up, the isolated ginsenosides can be used as quality markers for fraud detection, which will promote the quality control of the notoginseng products.

Xiaoyao Pills Ameliorate Depression-like Behaviors and Oxidative Stress Induced by Olfactory Bulbectomy in Rats via the Activation of the PIK3CA-AKT1-NFE2L2/BDNF Signaling Pathway

Numerous studies have revealed that oxidative stress is closely associated with the occurrence and development of depression. Xiaoyao Pills (XYW) are included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and are frequently used for treating anxiety and depression by smoothing the liver, strengthening the spleen, and nourishing the blood. However, the antidepressant effects of XYW have not yet been thoroughly investigated. The objective of our study was to investigate the antidepressant-like effects of XYW and the underlying molecular mechanism in the olfactory bulbectomized (OB) rat model of depression using the open field test (OFT), sucrose preference test (SPT), splash test (ST), and novelty suppressed feeding test (NSFT). Results showed that XYW (0.93 and 1.86 g·kg⁻¹) significantly alleviated depression-like behaviors in rats, which was indicated by increased sucrose preference in the SPT, prolonged grooming time in the ST, decreased horizontal movement in the OFT, and shorter feeding latency in the NSFT. In addition, XYW treatment dramatically reversed the reduced activity of superoxide dismutase and the decreased level of glutathione, while also lowering levels of malondialdehyde, an inflammatory mediator (nitric oxide), and pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6 and 1β) in the serum and cortex of OB rats. Mechanistically, XYW induced marked upregulation of mRNA and protein expression levels of NFE2L2, KEAP1, GPX3, HMOX1, SOD1, NQO1, OGG1, PIK3CA, p-AKT1/AKT1, NTRK2, and BDNF, and downregulation of ROS in the cortex and hippocampus via the activation of the NFE2L2/KEAP1, PIK3CA/AKT1, and NTRK2/BDNF pathways. These findings suggest that XYW exert antidepressant-like effects in OB rats with depression-like symptoms, and these effects are mediated by the alleviation of oxidative stress and the enhancement of neuroprotective effects through the activation of the PIK3CA-AKT1-NFE2L2/BDNF signaling pathways.

Compounds DRG and DAG, Two Phenol Glycosides, Inhibit TNF-α-stimulated Inflammatory Response through Blocking NF-kB/AKT/JNK Signaling Pathways in MH7A Cells

Fourteen constituents were recently isolated from the roots of Dendropanax dentiger with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitory effects. However, the effect of 14 constituents on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and their action mechanism remain unclear. The study aimed to explore the anti-RA effect and potential mechanism of these constituents in tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)-stimulated human RA fibroblast-like synoviocytes (MH7A cells). The cell viability, nitric oxide (NO) production, inflammatory cytokine levels, and protein expressions were measured by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), Griess reagent, ELISA, and Western blot assays, respectively. Results showed that 14 constituents (40 μM) have no cytotoxicity for MH7A cells. Among them, two phenols including 3,4-dimethoxyphenyl-1-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (DRG) and 3,4-dimethoxyphenol-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside (DAG) were shown to significantly inhibit the NO production with IC₅₀ values of 5.25±0.34 and 5.35±0.31 μM, respectively. They also remarkably decreased the release of interleukin (IL)-2, 6, 8, and interferon (IFN)-γ, as well as prominently reduced the phosphorylation protein levels of p65, IkBα, AKT, and JNK at a concentration of 10 μM. Taken together, DRG and DAG could inhibit TNF-α-induced inflammatory response through blocking NF-kB/AKT/JNK signaling pathways in MH7A cells, thus could be promising against RA and other inflammation-related agents.

Carbon Monoxide-Releasing Molecule-3 Regulates the Polarization of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Macrophages

Macrophages show two main phenotypes, the M1-type (pro-inflammatory) and the M2-type (anti-inflammatory). The purpose of this research was to investigate the regulatory effect of carbon monoxide releasing molecule-3 (CORM-3) on LPS-induced macrophage polarization. LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells were exposed to CORM-3 for 24 h. Polarization of cells was checked by flow cytometry; expression of M1 or M2 macrophage-related factors and NF-κB signaling factors was examined by RT-PCR, ELISA, and Western blot. Male C57 mice were divided into three groups: normal group; periodontitis group, where experimental periodontitis was established in mice; LPS+CORM-3 group, where mice with experimental periodontitis were treated with CORM-3. Polarization of macrophages and the expression of M1 or M2 macrophage-related factors were detected by immunofluorescence, ELISA, and RT-PCR. CORM-3 significantly reduced M1 macrophage proportion, but increased M2 proportion in LPS-stimulated cells. Accordingly, CORM-3 significantly suppressed the expression of M1 macrophage-related TNF-α, iNOS, IL-1β, and IL-6, but promoted M2-related IL-10 and Arg-1. The expression of p-p65, p-p50, and p-IκB induced with LPS was inhibited by CORM-3. In vivo experiments indicated that CORM-3 induced more M2 macrophages in periodontal tissues in mice with experimental periodontitis. The expression of M1 macrophage-related factor in periodontitis was inhibited, but the expression of M2-related factors was increased by CORM-3. CORM-3 inhibits macrophage polarization to pro-inflammatory M1-type and promotes to anti-inflammatory M2-type, which provides scientific basis for the application of CORM-3 in the treatment of periodontitis.

Gambogic acid ameliorates high glucose- and palmitic acid-induced inflammatory response in ARPE-19 cells via activating Nrf2 signaling pathway: ex vivo

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a serious microvascular complication of diabetes. Gambogic acid has been reported to have anti-inflammatory effect. However, the effect of GA on inflammatory response of ARPE-19 cells remains unclear. In our study, ARPE-19 cells were stimulated by palmitic acid (PA) induction in the presence of 30 mM glucose and then treated with 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, or 20 μM GA. CCK-8 assay showed that cell viability was increased by GA treatment at doses of 0.5, 1, and 2 μM instead of higher doses. ELISA analysis found that GA dose-dependently reduced the production of pro-inflammatory mediators TNF-α and IL-1β. Western blot indicated that GA downregulated the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome components including TXNIP, NLRP3, ASC, cleaved-caspase-1, and cleaved-IL-1β in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, Western blot and immunofluorescence analysis suggested that GA effectively increased the protein level of nuclear factor E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2). RT-qPCR showed that GA significantly increased the mRNA levels of Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and NADPH:quinone oxidoreductase1 (NQO1). Furthermore, Nrf2 siRNA transfection confirmed the above effects of GA. In total, subtoxic doses of GA significantly flattened the inflammatory response induced by HG and PA in ARPE-19 cells via modulating the Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Redox Homeostasis in Poultry: Regulatory Roles of NF-κB

Redox biology is a very quickly developing area of modern biological sciences, and roles of redox homeostasis in health and disease have recently received tremendous attention. There are a range of redox pairs in the cells/tissues responsible for redox homeostasis maintenance/regulation. In general, all redox elements are interconnected and regulated by various means, including antioxidant and vitagene networks. The redox status is responsible for maintenance of cell signaling and cell stress adaptation. Physiological roles of redox homeostasis maintenance in avian species, including poultry, have received limited attention and are poorly characterized. However, for the last 5 years, this topic attracted much attention, and a range of publications covered some related aspects. In fact, transcription factor Nrf2 was shown to be a master regulator of antioxidant defenses via activation of various vitagenes and other protective molecules to maintain redox homeostasis in cells/tissues. It was shown that Nrf2 is closely related to another transcription factor, namely, NF-κB, responsible for control of inflammation; however, its roles in poultry have not yet been characterized. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe a current view on NF-κB functioning in poultry with a specific emphasis to its nutritional modulation under various stress conditions. In particular, on the one hand, it has been shown that, in many stress conditions in poultry, NF-κB activation can lead to increased synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines leading to systemic inflammation. On the other hand, there are a range of nutrients/supplements that can downregulate NF-κB and decrease the negative consequences of stress-related disturbances in redox homeostasis. In general, vitagene-NF-κB interactions in relation to redox balance homeostasis, immunity, and gut health in poultry production await further research.

The Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Trichilia martiana C. DC. in the Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Inflammatory Response in Macrophages and Airway Epithelial Cells and in LPS-Challenged Mice

A number of species of the genus Trichilia (Meliaceae) exhibit anti-inflammatory effects. However, the effect of Trichilia martiana C. DC. (TM) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation has not, to the best of our knowledge, yet been determined. Therefore, in the present study, the antiinflammatory effect of TM on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages was evaluated. The ethanol extract of TM (TMEE) significantly inhibited LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin 2 (PGE₂), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). TMEE also reduced the levels of inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6. The upregulation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and NF-κB activation was revealed to be downregulated following TMEE pretreatment. Furthermore, TMEE was indicated to lead to the nucleus translocation of nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). In H292 airway epithelial cells, the pretreatment of TMEE significantly downregulated the production of LPS-stimulated IL-1β, and TMEE was indicated to increase the expression of HO-1. In animal models exhibiting LPS-induced acute lung injury (ALI), treatment with TMEE reduced the levels of macrophages influx and TNF-α production in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of ALI mice. Additionally, TMEE significantly downregulated the activation of ERK, JNK and IκB, and upregulated the expression of HO-1 in the lungs of ALI mice. In conclusion, the results of the current study demonstrated that TMEE could exert a regulatory role in the prevention or treatment of the endotoxin-mediated inflammatory response.

Synergistic anti-inflammatory effects of silibinin and thymol combination on LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells by inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK activation

BACKGROUND

Combination drug therapy has become an effective strategy for inflammation control. The anti‑inflammatory capacities of silibinin and thymol have each been investigated on its own, but little is known about the synergistic anti-inflammatory effects of these two compounds.

PURPOSE

This study aims to investigate the synergistic anti-inflammatory effects of silibinin and thymol when administered in combination to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells.

METHODS

RAW264.7 cells were pre-treated with silibinin and thymol individually or in combination for 2 h before LPS stimulation. Cell viability was detected by the MTT assay. Nitric oxide (NO) production was measured by Griess reagent. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) was evaluated by 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein-diacetate. ELISA was used to detect tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Western blot was performed to analyse the protein expression of LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells.

RESULTS

We observed a synergistic anti-inflammatory effect of silibinin and thymol when administered in combination to LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Silibinin combined with thymol (40 μM and 120 μM respectively, with the molar ratio 1:3) had more potent effects on the inhibition of NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 than those exerted by individual administration of these compounds in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. The combination of silibinin and thymol (40 μM and 120 μM respectively, with the molar ratio 1:3) strongly inhibited ROS and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). More importantly, the combination of silibinin and thymol (40 μM and 120 μM respectively, with the molar ratio 1:3) was also successful in inhibiting nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activities. Our results suggest that the synergistic anti-inflammatory effects of silibinin with thymol were associated with the inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways.

CONCLUSION

The combination of silibinin and thymol (40 μM and 120 μM, respectively, with the molar ratio 1:3) could inhibit inflammation by suppressing NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells.

In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of different extracts from Epigynum auritum through down-regulation of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Epigynum auritum has been historically used as a "dai" or traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammation, swelling and severe pain during injury; these may reduce risk of disease and lead to healthier aging. Apart from this, Epigynum auritum extract was also used in arhritis treatment which is also a type of inflammation. Previous phytochemical studies of E. auritum revealed that steroids are main characteristic components with a number of biological activities (especially immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory activity) Nevertheless, the underlying mechanism of the E. auritum on inflammatory diseases is still unresolved.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to comparatively investigate the anti-inflammatory potential of different fractions from the extract of E. auritum (EAE), with their possible active ingredients to reveal the underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The EAE was fractionated by column chromatography with macroporous resin D101 which yielded six fractions. The potential anti-inflammatory properties of different fractions of EAE were evaluated in in vitro and in vivo model. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 macrophages cells were used for in vitro studies however two typical acute inflammation murine models (xylene-induced ear edema and carrageenan-induced paw edema) were used for anti-inflammatory studies. The important molecular mechanisms related to inflammation were also analyzed by ELISA, western blotting and immunofluorescence. UHPLC-MS/MS was used to analyze the chemical composition of 100% EAE fraction.

RESULTS

Different EAE fractions (especially the Fr. 100% of MeOH:H₂O) significantly reduced the productions of NO, ROS, TNF-α, and IL-6 by LPS-induced RAW264.7 macrophages and increased the expression of IL-10. The expression levels of iNOS and COX-2 enzymes were significantly down-regulated by 100% EAE fraction. Furthermore, 100% EAE fraction inhibited the phosphorylation of the ERK1/2, JNK, and p38 MAPK, and reduced the nuclear translocation of NF-κB which prevents its activation by blocking the phosphorylation and degradation of inhibitor protein of IκBα. In addition two inflammatory animal models; xylene-induced ear edema and carrageenan-stimulated paw edema were also developed with significantly ameliorated inflammatory cytokines. The treatment of these inflammatory models with 100% EAE fraction (Fr. 100%) suppressed the expressions of elevated inflammatory cytokines. Besides the UHPLC-HRMS/MS analysis was also carried out in which the androstane analogues were found to be as a main chemical components.

CONCLUSION

Different fractions (especially Fr. 100%) exert inhibitory effect on inflammation by regulating the release of inflammatory mediators through the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. The androstane and its derivatives might be performing an important role in the observed anti-inflammatory activity. Therefore, Fr. 100% of EAE could be applied as a potential drug candidate for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Anti‑inflammatory effects of leaf and branch extracts of honeyberry (Lonicera caerulea) on lipopolysaccharide‑stimulated RAW264.7 cells through ATF3 and Nrf2/HO‑1 activation

Honeyberry (Lonicera caerulea) has long been used as a traditional medicine in China, Japan and northern Russia. Functional studies of honeyberry have mainly focused on the fruits, which have been reported to exert various pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory activity, with limited or no studies on the other parts of the plant, such as the leaves and branches. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory effects of extracts of the leaves (HBL), branches (HBB) and fruit (HBF) of honeyberry plant were evaluated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. HBL and HBB significantly inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, and the inhibitory effects of HBL and HBB were stronger than those of HBF. HBL and HBB blocked the nuclear accumulation of p65 independently of IκB-α. HBL did not inhibit the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 or p38; however, HBB effectively inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 but not ERK1/2. HBL and HBB increased the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) protein by inducing the nuclear accumulation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) through the activation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS)/p38 pathway; the reduction in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) expression by HBL and HBB was inhibited by HO-1 knockdown. In addition, HBL and HBB increased the expression of activating transcription factor-3 (ATF3), and the reduction in iNOS and IL-1β expression by HBL and HBB was inhibited by ATF3 knockdown. Collectively, HBL and HBB inhibited LPS-induced nuclear factor-κB activation by blocking the nuclear accumulation of p65, increasing HO-1 expression through activation of the ROS/p38/Nrf2 pathway, and increasing ATF3 expression. Furthermore, HBB inhibited LPS-induced p38 phosphorylation. These findings suggest that HBL and HBB may have great potential as natural products for the development of anti-inflammatory drugs.

Effects of Launaea sarmentosa Extract on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation via Suppression of NF-κB/MAPK Signaling and Nrf2 Activation

Launaea sarmentosa has been extensively used as a nutrient herb in traditional Vietnamese remedies for the treatment of various diseases, especially inflammatory diseases. However, no detailed research has been conducted examining the molecular mechanisms involved in the suppression of inflammatory response. Here, we studied the effects of L. sarmentosa methanol extract on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation using RAW 264.7 macrophages. The extract demonstrated potent antioxidant activity owing to the presence of polyphenolic and flavonoid components. Pretreatment with the extract inhibited LPS-mediated secretion of nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species, and tumor necrosis factor-α as well as the expression of inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, the activation of the nuclear factor-kappa B pathway and phosphoinositide-3-kinase/protein kinase B pathways was blocked by the extract by inhibiting Akt phosphorylation. Additionally, the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway was suppressed, and endoplasmic reticulum stress was attenuated. Furthermore, the extract promoted the activity of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 resulting in the up-regulation of heme oxygenase-1 pathway, leading to the suppression of oxidative stress and inflammatory response. Taken together, the results indicate that L. sarmentosa exhibits anti-inflammatory effects, and hence, can be further developed as a novel drug for the treatment of diseases associated with excessive inflammation.