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Urueña-Méndez G, Arrondeau C, Bellés L, Ginovart N. Decoupling Dopamine Synthesis from Impulsive Action, Risk-Related Decision-Making, and Propensity to Cocaine Intake: A Longitudinal [ 18F]-FDOPA PET Study in Roman High- and Low-Avoidance Rats. eNeuro 2024; 11:ENEURO.0492-23.2023. [PMID: 38253584 PMCID: PMC10867553 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0492-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Impulsive action and risk-related decision-making (RDM) are two facets of impulsivity linked to a hyperdopaminergic release in the striatum and an increased propensity to cocaine intake. We previously showed that with repeated cocaine exposure, this initial hyperdopaminergic release is blunted in impulsive animals, potentially signaling drug-induced tolerance. Whether such dopaminergic dynamics involve changes in dopamine (DA) synthesis as a function of impulsivity is currently unknown. Here, we investigated the predictive value of DA synthesis for impulsive action, RDM, and the propensity to take cocaine in a rat model of vulnerability to cocaine abuse. Additionally, we assessed the effects of cocaine intake on these variables. Rats were tested sequentially in the rat Gambling Task (rGT) and were scanned with positron emission tomography and [18F]-FDOPA to respectively assess both impulsivity facets and striatal DA synthesis before and after cocaine self-administration (SA). Our results revealed that baseline striatal levels of DA synthesis did not significantly predict impulsive action, RDM, or a greater propensity to cocaine SA in impulsive animals. Besides, we showed that impulsive action, but not RDM, predicted higher rates of cocaine taking. However, chronic cocaine exposure had no impact on DA synthesis, nor affected impulsive action and RDM. These findings indicate that the hyper-responsive DA system associated with impulsivity and a propensity for cocaine consumption, along with the reduction in this hyper-responsive DA state in impulsive animals with a history of cocaine use, might not be mediated by dynamic changes in DA synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginna Urueña-Méndez
- Departments of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
- Basic Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
| | - Chloé Arrondeau
- Departments of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
- Basic Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
| | - Lidia Bellés
- Departments of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
- Basic Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Ginovart
- Departments of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
- Basic Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva CH1206, Switzerland
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Konova AB, Ceceli AO, Horga G, Moeller SJ, Alia-Klein N, Goldstein RZ. Reduced neural encoding of utility prediction errors in cocaine addiction. Neuron 2023; 111:4058-4070.e6. [PMID: 37883973 PMCID: PMC10880133 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Influential accounts of addiction posit alterations in adaptive behavior driven by deficient dopaminergic prediction errors (PEs), signaling the discrepancy between actual and expected reward. Dopamine neurons encode these error signals in subjective terms, calibrated by individual risk preferences, as "utility" PEs. It remains unclear, however, whether people with drug addiction have PE deficits or their computational source. Here, using an analogous task to prior single-unit studies with known expectancies, we show that fMRI-measured PEs similarly reflect utility PEs. Relative to control participants, people with chronic cocaine addiction demonstrate reduced utility PEs in the dopaminoceptive ventral striatum, with similar trends in orbitofrontal cortex. Dissecting this PE signal into its subcomponent terms attributed these reductions to weaker striatal responses to received reward/utility, whereas suppression of activity with reward expectation was unchanged. These findings support that addiction may fundamentally disrupt PE signaling and reveal an underappreciated role for perceived reward value in this mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna B Konova
- Department of Psychiatry, University Behavioral Health Care & the Brain Health Institute, Rutgers University-New Brunswick, Piscataway, NJ 08855, USA.
| | - Ahmet O Ceceli
- Departments of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Guillermo Horga
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10024, USA
| | - Scott J Moeller
- Department of Psychiatry, Renaissance School of Medicine at Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Nelly Alia-Klein
- Departments of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Rita Z Goldstein
- Departments of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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Zetterström TSC, Quansah E, Grootveld M. Effects of Methylphenidate on the Dopamine Transporter and Beyond. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2022; 57:127-157. [PMID: 35507284 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2022_333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The dopamine transporter (DAT) is the main target of methylphenidate (MPH), which remains the number one drug prescribed worldwide for the treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In addition, abnormalities of the DAT have been widely associated with ADHD. Based on clinical and preclinical studies, the direction of DAT abnormalities in ADHD are, however, still unclear. Moreover, chronic treatment of MPH has been shown to increase brain DAT expression in both animals and ADHD patients, suggesting that findings of overexpressed levels of DAT in ADHD patients are possibly attributable to the effects of long-term MPH treatment rather than the pathology of the condition itself. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the effects exerted by MPH, which are related to its actions on catecholamine protein targets and brain metabolites, together with genes and proteins mediating neuronal plasticity. For this purpose, we present data from biochemical, proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-NMR) and gene/protein expression studies. Overall, results of the studies discussed in this chapter show that MPH has a complex biological/pharmacological action well beyond the DAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyra S C Zetterström
- Pharmacology and Neuroscience Research Group, Leicester School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK.
| | - Emmanuel Quansah
- Pharmacology and Neuroscience Research Group, Leicester School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
| | - Martin Grootveld
- Pharmacology and Neuroscience Research Group, Leicester School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
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Cassidy CM, Konova AB, Abi-Dargham A, Martinez D, Horga G. Ubiquitous Dopamine Deficit Hypotheses in Cocaine Use Disorder Lack Support: Response to Leyton. Am J Psychiatry 2021; 178:469-470. [PMID: 33979543 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20111581r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Clifford M Cassidy
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, affiliated with The Royal, Ottawa (Cassidy); Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York (Cassidy, Abi-Dargham, Martinez, Horga); Department of Psychiatry, Rutgers University, Piscataway, N.J. (Konova); Department of Psychiatry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, N.Y. (Abi-Dargham)
| | - Anna B Konova
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, affiliated with The Royal, Ottawa (Cassidy); Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York (Cassidy, Abi-Dargham, Martinez, Horga); Department of Psychiatry, Rutgers University, Piscataway, N.J. (Konova); Department of Psychiatry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, N.Y. (Abi-Dargham)
| | - Anissa Abi-Dargham
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, affiliated with The Royal, Ottawa (Cassidy); Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York (Cassidy, Abi-Dargham, Martinez, Horga); Department of Psychiatry, Rutgers University, Piscataway, N.J. (Konova); Department of Psychiatry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, N.Y. (Abi-Dargham)
| | - Diana Martinez
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, affiliated with The Royal, Ottawa (Cassidy); Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York (Cassidy, Abi-Dargham, Martinez, Horga); Department of Psychiatry, Rutgers University, Piscataway, N.J. (Konova); Department of Psychiatry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, N.Y. (Abi-Dargham)
| | - Guillermo Horga
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, affiliated with The Royal, Ottawa (Cassidy); Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York (Cassidy, Abi-Dargham, Martinez, Horga); Department of Psychiatry, Rutgers University, Piscataway, N.J. (Konova); Department of Psychiatry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, N.Y. (Abi-Dargham)
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Cassidy CM, Carpenter KM, Konova AB, Cheung V, Grassetti A, Zecca L, Abi-Dargham A, Martinez D, Horga G. Evidence for Dopamine Abnormalities in the Substantia Nigra in Cocaine Addiction Revealed by Neuromelanin-Sensitive MRI. Am J Psychiatry 2020; 177:1038-1047. [PMID: 32854531 PMCID: PMC9108998 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20010090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent evidence supports the use of neuromelanin-sensitive MRI (NM-MRI) as a novel tool to investigate dopamine function in the human brain. The authors investigated the NM-MRI signal in individuals with cocaine use disorder, compared with age- and sex-matched control subjects, based on previous imaging studies showing that this disorder is associated with blunted presynaptic striatal dopamine. METHODS NM-MRI and T1-weighted images were acquired from 20 participants with cocaine use disorder and 35 control subjects. Diagnostic group effects in NM-MRI signal were determined using a voxelwise analysis within the substantia nigra. A subset of 20 cocaine users and 17 control subjects also underwent functional MRI imaging using the monetary incentive delay task, in order to investigate whether NM-MRI signal was associated with alterations in reward processing. RESULTS Compared with control subjects, cocaine users showed significantly increased NM-MRI signal in ventrolateral regions of the substantia nigra (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve=0.83). Exploratory analyses did not find a significant correlation of NM-MRI signal to activation of the ventral striatum during anticipation of monetary reward. CONCLUSIONS Given that previous imaging studies show decreased dopamine signaling in the striatum, the finding of increased NM-MRI signal in the substantia nigra provides additional insight into the pathophysiology of cocaine use disorder. One interpretation is that cocaine use disorder is associated with a redistribution of dopamine between cytosolic and vesicular pools, leading to increased accumulation of neuromelanin. The study findings thus suggest that NM-MRI can serve as a practical imaging tool for interrogating the dopamine system in addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clifford M Cassidy
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, affiliated with The Royal, Ottawa, ON,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY,Corresponding author: Clifford Cassidy, 1145 Carling Ave, Ottawa ON, K1Z 7K4, Canada.
| | - Kenneth M Carpenter
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY
| | - Anna B Konova
- Department of Psychiatry, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ
| | - Victoria Cheung
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, affiliated with The Royal, Ottawa, ON
| | - Alexander Grassetti
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY
| | - Luigi Zecca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Milan, Italy
| | - Anissa Abi-Dargham
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY,Department of Psychiatry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY
| | - Diana Martinez
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY
| | - Guillermo Horga
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY
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Chronic methylphenidate preferentially alters catecholamine protein targets in the parietal cortex and ventral striatum. Neurochem Int 2019; 124:193-199. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2019.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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A six-year longitudinal PET study of (+)-[ 11 C]DTBZ binding to the VMAT2 in monkey brain. Nucl Med Biol 2017; 55:34-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2017.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Development and Validation of Stability-Indicating UPLC Method for 9-Desmethyl-α-dihydrotetrabenazine. Chromatographia 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10337-017-3388-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Structural requirement of C11b chirality of tetrabenazine analogs as VMAT2 imaging ligands: synthesis and in vivo evaluation. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10967-017-5333-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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10
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Kalk NJ, Guo Q, Owen D, Cherian R, Erritzoe D, Gilmour A, Ribeiro AS, McGonigle J, Waldman A, Matthews P, Cavanagh J, McInnes I, Dar K, Gunn R, Rabiner EA, Lingford-Hughes AR. Decreased hippocampal translocator protein (18 kDa) expression in alcohol dependence: a [ 11C]PBR28 PET study. Transl Psychiatry 2017; 7:e996. [PMID: 28072413 PMCID: PMC5545729 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2016.264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2016] [Revised: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Repeated withdrawal from alcohol is clinically associated with progressive cognitive impairment. Microglial activation occurring during pre-clinical models of alcohol withdrawal is associated with learning deficits. We investigated whether there was microglial activation in recently detoxified alcohol-dependent patients (ADP), using [11C]PBR28 positron emission tomography (PET), selective for the 18kDa translocator protein (TSPO) highly expressed in activated microglia and astrocytes. We investigated the relationship between microglial activation and cognitive performance. Twenty healthy control (HC) subjects (45±13; M:F 14:6) and nine ADP (45±6, M:F 9:0) were evaluated. Dynamic PET data were acquired for 90 min following an injection of 331±15 MBq [11C]PBR28. Regional volumes of distribution (VT) for regions of interest (ROIs) identified a priori were estimated using a two-tissue compartmental model with metabolite-corrected arterial plasma input function. ADP had an ~20% lower [11C]PBR28 VT, in the hippocampus (F(1,24) 5.694; P=0.025), but no difference in VT in other ROIs. Hippocampal [11C]PBR28 VT was positively correlated with verbal memory performance in a combined group of HC and ADP (r=0.720, P<0.001), an effect seen in HC alone (r=0.738; P=0.001) but not in ADP. We did not find evidence for increased microglial activation in ADP, as seen pre-clinically. Instead, our findings suggest lower glial density or an altered activation state with lower TSPO expression. The correlation between verbal memory and [11C]PBR28 VT, raises the possibility that abnormalities of glial function may contribute to cognitive impairment in ADP.
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Affiliation(s)
- N J Kalk
- National Addictions Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, London, UK,National Addictions Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, 4 Windsor Walk, London SE5 8BB, UK. E-mail:
| | - Q Guo
- Neuroimaging Department, Kings College London, London, UK,Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - D Owen
- Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - R Cherian
- West London Mental Health NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - D Erritzoe
- Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - A Gilmour
- Centre for Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - A S Ribeiro
- Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - J McGonigle
- Centre for Neuropsychopharmacology, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - A Waldman
- Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - P Matthews
- Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - J Cavanagh
- Institute of Health and Well-being, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - I McInnes
- Centre for Infection, Inflammation and Immunity, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - K Dar
- Central and North West London NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - R Gunn
- Imanova Limited, London, UK
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Gunn RN, Slifstein M, Searle GE, Price JC. Quantitative imaging of protein targets in the human brain with PET. Phys Med Biol 2015; 60:R363-411. [DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/60/22/r363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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12
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Chen Z, Tang J, Liu C, Li X, Huang H, Xu X, Yu H. Effects of anesthetics on vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 binding to ¹⁸F-FP-(+)-DTBZ: a biodistribution study in rat brain. Nucl Med Biol 2015; 43:124-129. [PMID: 26526872 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2015.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The in vivo binding analysis of vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 (VMAT2) to radioligand has provided a means of investigating related disorders. Anesthesia is often inevitable when the investigations are performed in animals. In the present study, we tested effects of four commonly-used anesthetics: isoflurane, pentobarbital, chloral hydrate and ketamine, on in vivo VMAT2 binding to (18)F-FP-(+)-DTBZ, a specific VMAT2 radioligand, in rat brain. METHODS The transient equilibrium time window for in vivo binding of (18)F-FP-(+)-DTBZ after a bolus injection was firstly determined. The brain biodistribution studies under anesthetized and awake rats were then performed at the equilibrium time. Standard uptake values (SUVs) of the interest brain regions: the striatum (ST), hippocampus (HP), cortex (CX) and cerebellum (CB) were obtained; and ratios of tissue to cerebellum were calculated. RESULTS Isoflurane and pentobarbital did not alter distribution of (18)F-FP-(+)-DTBZ in the brain relative to the awake group; neither SUVs nor ratios of ST/CB and HP/CB were altered significantly. Chloral hydrate significantly increased SUVs of all the brain regions, but did not significantly alter ratios of ST/CB and HP/CB. Ketamine significantly increased SUVs of the striatum, hippocampus and cortex, and insignificantly increased the SUV of the cerebellum; consequently, ketamine significantly increased ratios of ST/CB and HP/CB. CONCLUSIONS It is concluded that in vivo VMAT2 binding to (18)F-FP-(+)-DTBZ are not altered by isoflurane and pentobarbital, but altered by chloral hydrate and ketamine. Isoflurane and pentobarbital may be promising anesthetic compounds for investigating in vivo VMAT2 binding. Further studies are warranted to investigate the interactions of anesthetics with VMAT2 binding potential with in vivo PET studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengping Chen
- Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China, 214063.
| | - Jie Tang
- Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China, 214063
| | - Chunyi Liu
- Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China, 214063
| | - Xiaomin Li
- Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China, 214063
| | - Hongbo Huang
- Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China, 214063
| | - Xijie Xu
- Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China, 214063
| | - Huixin Yu
- Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Ministry of Health, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China, 214063
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Madras BK. Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 loss in human cocaine abusers confirmed in nonhuman primate brain. Biol Psychiatry 2015; 77:421-2. [PMID: 25645272 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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