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Zimmermann KS, Richardson R, Baker KD. Developmental changes in functional connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and amygdala following fear extinction. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2023; 205:107847. [PMID: 37865263 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2023.107847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
The amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC) undergo dramatic changes in structure, function, and regional connectivity in early life, ultimately stabilizing in early adulthood. Pathways between these two structures underlie many forms of emotional learning, including the extinction of conditioned fear. Here we sought to characterize changes in extinction-related medial PFC (mPFC) → amygdala functional connectivity across development that might explain adolescent impairments in extinction. The retrograde tracer Fluorogold was infused into the amygdala of postnatal day (P)22-23 (juvenile), P31-32 (adolescent), or ≥ P69 (adult) rats, which were then exposed to fear conditioning and extinction training. Brains were collected following extinction or context exposure and processed for expression of pMAPK (as a marker of learning-dependent plasticity) in prelimbic (PL) and infralimbic (IL) amygdala-projecting neurons. Consistent with previous findings, amygdala-projecting mPFC neurons were located primarily in layers (L)II/III and V of the mPFC. We noted that mPFC LII/III projected predominantly to the ipsilateral basolateral amygdala, whereas LV projected bilaterally and targeted multiple amygdalar nuclei. Extinction was not associated with changes in extinction-related plasticity in the PL-amygdala pathways in any age group. No changes were seen in LII/III of the IL, but extinction-related plasticity in LV amygdala-projecting IL neurons decreased linearly across development. These findings suggest that extinction-related functional connectivity between the IL and the amygdala undergoes fundamental changes across development that may contribute to alterations in fear suppression across development.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Zimmermann
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - R Richardson
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - K D Baker
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia.
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2
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Cintado MÁ, González G, Cárcel L, De la Casa LG. Unconditioned and conditioned anxiolytic effects of Sodium Valproate on flavor neophobia and fear conditioning. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0279511. [PMID: 37418453 PMCID: PMC10328238 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In three experiments with rats, we analyzed the potential anxiolytic effects of sodium valproate, an anticonvulsant drug that has shown additional pharmacodynamic effects in animal models, including anxiolytic action. Since previous results have revealed that injecting valproate before allowing animals to consume a novel flavor solution resulted in an attenuation of neophobia, we predicted a similar effect when the novel flavor is presented on a drug-free trial in the presence of a context previously associated with the drug. In line with this hypothesis, in our first experiment we observed a reduction in neophobia to a novel flavor for those animals tested in the presence of the context associated with Sodium Valproate. However, a control group that received the drug before being allowed access to the novel flavor showed a significant reduction in consumption. Experiment 2 revealed that the unconditioned effects of the drug include a deleterious effect on the animals' locomotor activity that probably interferes with drinking behavior. Finally, in a third experiment, we directly tested the potential anxiolytic properties of sodium valproate by injecting the drug before implementing a fear conditioning procedure. These findings are explained in terms of the unconditioned anxiolytic action of the drug and the formation of an association between the context and the effects of the drug that evokes a conditioned response reminiscent of such anxiolytic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Ángeles Cintado
- Laboratory of Animal Behavior & Neuroscience, Dpt. Experimental Psychology, Seville University, Seville, Spain
| | | | - Lucía Cárcel
- Laboratory of Animal Behavior & Neuroscience, Dpt. Experimental Psychology, Seville University, Seville, Spain
| | - Luis Gonzalo De la Casa
- Laboratory of Animal Behavior & Neuroscience, Dpt. Experimental Psychology, Seville University, Seville, Spain
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3
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Shapiro M. Psychodynamic Formulation and Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Pediatric Anxiety Disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2023; 32:559-572. [PMID: 37201967 DOI: 10.1016/j.chc.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Psychodynamic psychotherapy can be an effective treatment of pediatric anxiety disorders. Psychodynamic formulation can be easily integrated with other conceptualizations of anxiety (eg, biological/genetic, developmental, and social learning theory). Psychodynamic formulation helps determine whether anxiety symptoms represent innate biological responses, learned responses from early experiences, or defensive reactions to intrapsychic conflict. Child and Adolescent Anxiety Psychodynamic Psychotherapy and Psychoanalytic Child Therapy are two evidence-based manualized psychodynamic approaches to treating pediatric anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Shapiro
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, 1149 Newell Drive, Suite L4-100, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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4
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Towner E, Chierchia G, Blakemore SJ. Sensitivity and specificity in affective and social learning in adolescence. Trends Cogn Sci 2023:S1364-6613(23)00092-X. [PMID: 37198089 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Adolescence is a period of heightened affective and social sensitivity. In this review we address how this increased sensitivity influences associative learning. Based on recent evidence from human and rodent studies, as well as advances in computational biology, we suggest that, compared to other age groups, adolescents show features of heightened Pavlovian learning but tend to perform worse than adults at instrumental learning. Because Pavlovian learning does not involve decision-making, whereas instrumental learning does, we propose that these developmental differences might be due to heightened sensitivity to rewards and threats in adolescence, coupled with a lower specificity of responding. We discuss the implications of these findings for adolescent mental health and education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Towner
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Gabriele Chierchia
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy; Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, UK
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Kitt ER, Odriozola P, Gee DG. Extinction Learning Across Development: Neurodevelopmental Changes and Implications for Pediatric Anxiety Disorders. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 64:237-256. [PMID: 37532964 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2023_430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Alterations in extinction learning relate to the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders across the lifespan. While exposure therapy, based on principles of extinction, can be highly effective for treating anxiety, many patients do not show sufficient improvement following treatment. In particular, evidence suggests that exposure therapy does not work sufficiently for up to 40% of children who receive this evidence-based treatment.Importantly, fear learning and extinction, as well as the neural circuitry supporting these processes, undergo dynamic changes across development. An improved understanding of developmental changes in extinction learning and the associated neural circuitry may help to identify targets to improve treatment response in clinically anxious children and adolescents. In this chapter, we provide a brief overview of methods used to study fear learning and extinction in developmental populations. We then review what is currently known about the developmental changes that occur in extinction learning and related neural circuitry. We end this chapter with a discussion of the implications of these neurodevelopmental changes for the characterization and treatment of pediatric anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paola Odriozola
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Dylan G Gee
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
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6
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Newsome P, Ruiz SG, Gold AL, Pine DS, Abend R. Fear-potentiated startle reveals diminished threat extinction in pathological anxiety. Int J Psychophysiol 2023; 183:81-91. [PMID: 36442665 PMCID: PMC9812922 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Major theories propose that perturbed threat learning is central to pathological anxiety, but empirical support is inconsistent. Failures to detect associations with anxiety may reflect limitations in quantifying conditioned responses to anticipated threat, and hinder translation of theory into empirical work. In prior work, we could not detect threat-specific anxiety effects on states of conditioned threat using psychophysiology in a large sample of patients and healthy comparisons. Here, we examine the utility of an alternative fear potentiated startle (FPS) scoring in revealing associations between anxiety and threat conditioning and extinction in this dataset. Secondary analyses further explored associations among conditioned threat responses, subcortical morphometry, and treatment outcomes. METHODS Youths and adults with anxiety disorders and healthy comparisons (n = 306; 178 female participants; 8-50 years) previously completed a well-validated differential threat learning paradigm. FPS and skin conductance response (SCR) quantified psychophysiological responses during threat conditioning and extinction. In this report, we examined normalizing raw FPS scores to intertrial intervals (ITI) to address challenges in more common approaches to FPS scoring which could mask group effects. Secondary analyses examined associations between FPS and subcortical morphometry and with response to exposure-based cognitive behavioral therapy in a subsample of patients. RESULTS Patients and comparisons showed comparable differential threat conditioning using FPS and SCR. While SCR suggested comparable extinction between groups, FPS revealed stronger retention of threat contingency during extinction in individuals with anxiety disorders. Extinction indexed with FPS was not associated with age, morphometry, or anxiety treatment outcome. CONCLUSION ITI-normalized FPS may have utility in detecting difficulties in extinguishing conditioned threat responses in anxiety. These findings provide support for extinction theories of anxiety and encourage continued research on aberrant extinction in pathological anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Newsome
- Emotion and Development Branch, National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sonia G Ruiz
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Andrea L Gold
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Daniel S Pine
- Emotion and Development Branch, National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Rany Abend
- Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Reichman University, Israel.
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Peng Y, Knotts JD, Young KS, Bookheimer SY, Nusslock R, Zinbarg RE, Kelley NJ, Echiverri-Cohen AM, Craske MG. Threat Neurocircuitry Predicts the Development of Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in a Longitudinal Study. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2023; 8:102-110. [PMID: 35031524 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Owing to high heterogeneity and comorbidity, the shared and unique neural mechanisms underlying the development of anxiety and major depressive disorders remain unclear. Using a dimensional model describing shared versus unique symptoms associated with anxiety and depression, this study investigated how longitudinal changes in symptom dimensions relate to threat neurocircuitry. METHODS Participants were 18- to 19-year-olds (N = 279, 186 females) who completed self-report measures of anxiety and depression at baseline and at 10, 20, and 30 months. Linear slopes of symptom dimensions of general distress, fear, and anhedonia-apprehension were estimated through a trilevel factorial model. In addition, functional magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained while participants performed Pavlovian fear conditioning tasks at baseline and 30 months, including three phases of fear acquisition, extinction, and extinction recall. Neural responses in regions of interest related to threat neural circuitry (e.g., amygdala, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and subgenual anterior cingulate cortex) were extracted. RESULTS Linear mixed models used to estimate relationships between changes of symptom dimensions and neural responses revealed two major findings: 1) greater neural responses to threatening stimuli during fear acquisition at baseline were associated with a greater increase in fear symptoms during the 30-month prospective period; and 2) elevated neural responses to the extinguished stimulus during extinction recall at 30 months were negatively associated with changes in general distress, suggesting that greater increases in general distress are associated with larger deficits in extinction memory. CONCLUSIONS These findings improve our understanding of pathophysiological pathways underlying the development of anxiety and depression, while separating symptom dimensions that are shared versus unique between the two disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujia Peng
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China; Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Peking University, Beijing, China; Beijing Institute for General Artificial Intelligence, Beijing, China; Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Jeffrey D Knotts
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire
| | - Katherine S Young
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Social, Genetic and Development Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom; NIHR Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Y Bookheimer
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Robin Nusslock
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
| | - Richard E Zinbarg
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois; Family Institute at Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
| | - Nicholas J Kelley
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois; Department of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | | | - Michelle G Craske
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California.
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8
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Observational extinction reduces fear and its retention among adolescents and adults. Behav Res Ther 2022; 159:104207. [PMID: 36279765 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2022.104207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Observational fear learning has been notably understudied in fear learning research, especially the potential benefits of observational extinction. Additionally, no studies have investigated observational extinction during adolescence, a key developmental stage for the emergence of anxiety disorders. This study compared observational and direct fear extinction following observational fear acquisition among adolescents and adults. Participants underwent differential observational fear acquisition. Next, participants underwent one of three fear extinctions: (1) observational extinction, (2) direct extinction, (3) no-extinction. Thereafter, participants underwent a US reminder and finally, a direct exposure test. Skin conductance response (SCR), self-reported fear, and risk assessment were measured. Differential observational fear acquisition was demonstrated by both age groups across all measures. During extinction, the observational and direct extinction groups did not differ in differential extinction, however, during the US reminder the observational group exhibited higher SCR compared to the direct group, but not the no-extinction group. Finally, during the direct exposure test, the no-extinction group showed greater differential risk assessment and higher SCR compared to the observational and direct groups. Additionally, adolescents showed poorer discrimination between the CSs compared to adults. Observational extinction successfully reduced fear and its retention amongst youth and adults pointing to the potential benefit of vicarious exposure therapy.
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9
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Klein Z, Abend R, Shmuel S, Shechner T. Unique Associations between Conditioned Cognitive and Physiological Threat Responses and Facets of Anxiety Symptomatology in Youth. Biol Psychol 2022; 170:108314. [PMID: 35301083 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This study examined associations between anxiety symptomatology and cognitive and physiological threat responses during threat learning in a large sample of children and adolescents. Anxiety symptomatology severity along different dimensions (generalized anxiety, separation anxiety, social anxiety, and panic symptoms) was measured using parental and self-reports. Participants completed differential threat acquisition and extinction using an age-appropriate threat conditioning task. They then returned to the lab after 7-10 days to complete an extinction recall task that also assessed threat generalization. Results indicated that more severe overall anxiety was associated with greater cognitive and physiological threat responses during acquisition, extinction, and extinction recall. During acquisition and extinction, all anxiety dimensions manifested greater cognitive threat responses, while panic, separation anxiety, and social anxiety symptoms, but not generalized anxiety, were related to heightened physiological threat responses. In contrast, when we assessed generalization of cognitive threat responses, we found only generalized anxiety symptoms were associated with greater threat response generalization. The study provides preliminary evidence of specificity in threat responses during threat learning across youth with different anxiety symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zohar Klein
- School of Psychological Sciences and the Integrated Brain and Behavior Research Center, University of Haifa, Israel
| | - Rany Abend
- Emotion and Development Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Shahar Shmuel
- School of Psychological Sciences and the Integrated Brain and Behavior Research Center, University of Haifa, Israel
| | - Tomer Shechner
- School of Psychological Sciences and the Integrated Brain and Behavior Research Center, University of Haifa, Israel.
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10
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Wang J, Wang Y, Liao M, Zou Y, Lei Y, Zhu Y. Conditioned generalisation in generalised anxiety disorder: the role of concurrent perceptual and conceptual cues. Cogn Emot 2021; 35:1516-1526. [PMID: 34602017 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2021.1982677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Previous research in extinction indicates no difference in US expectancies for aversive and non-aversive unconditioned stimuli (USs). In this study, we bridged these topics by examining how concurrent perceptual and conceptual cues influence conditioned generalisation of generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) patients by using non-aversive USs. The study included two consecutive phases: acquisition and generalisation. In the acquisition phase, we used blue and purple images as the perceptually conditioned stimuli, images of animals and household items as the conceptually conditioned stimuli, and non-aversive images as unconditioned stimuli (US). In the generalisation phase, we used images containing both conceptual and perceptual cues (e.g. blue animals) as the generalisation stimuli. Participants rated the US expectancy for all images. We found that compared with the control group, the patients exhibited generalisation in response to stimuli that included conditional conceptual cues. These results reveal novel evidence of generalisation in GAD and may have implications for considering the concept-based information in extinction treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxia Wang
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, People's Republic of China.,School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China.,Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Yizhen Wang
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
| | - Meiling Liao
- Department of Applied Psychology, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yefeng Zou
- Fuzhou Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Lei
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuxi Zhu
- School of Management, Shenzhen Polytechnic, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
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Grasser LR, Jovanovic T. Safety learning during development: Implications for development of psychopathology. Behav Brain Res 2021; 408:113297. [PMID: 33862062 PMCID: PMC8102395 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Fear and safety learning are necessary adaptive behaviors that develop over the course of maturation. While there is a large body of literature regarding the neurobiology of fear and safety learning in adults, less is known regarding safety learning during development. Given developmental changes in the brain, there are corresponding changes in safety learning that are quantifiable; these may serve to predict risk and point to treatment targets for fear and anxiety-related disorders in children and adolescents. For healthy, typically developing youth, the main developmental variation observed is reduced discrimination between threat and safety cues in children compared to adolescents and adults, while lower expression of extinction learning is exhibited in adolescents compared to adults. Such distinctions may be related to faster maturation of the amygdala relative to the prefrontal cortex, as well as incompletely developed functional circuits between the two. Fear and anxiety-related disorders, childhood maltreatment, and behavioral problems are all associated with alterations in safety learning for youth, and this dysfunction may proceed into adulthood with corresponding abnormalities in brain structure and function-including amygdala hypertrophy and hyperreactivity. As impaired inhibition of fear to safety may reflect abnormalities in the developing brain and subsequent psychopathology, impaired safety learning may be considered as both a predictor of risk and a treatment target. Longitudinal neuroimaging studies over the course of development, and studies that query change with interventions are needed in order to improve outcomes for individuals and reduce long-term impact of developmental psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lana Ruvolo Grasser
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 3901 Chrysler Dr, Tolan Park Suite 2C Room 273, Detroit, MI 48201 United States.
| | - Tanja Jovanovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 3901 Chrysler Dr, Tolan Park Suite 2C, Detroit, MI 48201 United States.
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12
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An Adolescent Sensitive Period for Threat Responding: Impacts of Stress and Sex. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 89:651-658. [PMID: 33342545 PMCID: PMC7954972 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety and fear-related disorders peak in prevalence during adolescence, a window of rapid behavioral development and neural remodeling. However, understanding of the development of threat responding and the underlying neural circuits remains limited. Preclinical models of threat conditioning and extinction have provided an unparalleled glimpse into the developing brain. In this review we discuss mouse and rat studies on the development of threat response regulation, with a focus on the adolescent period. Evidence of nonlinear patterns of threat responding during adolescence and the continued development of the underlying circuitry is highly indicative of an adolescent sensitive period for threat response regulation. While we highlight literature in support of this unique developmental window, we also emphasize the need for causal studies to clarify the parameters defining such a sensitive period. In doing so, we explore how stress and biological sex affect the development and expression of threat response regulation during adolescence and beyond. Ultimately, a deeper understanding of how these factors interact with and affect developmental trajectories of learning and memory will inform treatment and prevention strategies for pediatric anxiety disorders.
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Sylvester CM, Pine DS. Pediatric Anxiety Disorders: Insights From Basic Neuroscience, Development, and Clinical Research. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 89:638-640. [PMID: 33706867 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chad M Sylvester
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in Saint Louis, Saint Louis, Missouri.
| | - Daniel S Pine
- National Institute of Mental Health, Emotion and Development Branch, Bethesda, Maryland.
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